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«^"^UTHF^7^]  BRANCH, 

UNIVERSllY  0"^  CALIFORNIA, 

L!&jaARY, 
;los  angeles,  calif. 


FIXE  AND  rXIXSTRIAL  ARTS 
IN  ELEMEXTAllY  SCHOOLS 


BY 


WALTER  SARGEXT 

riidi  r.ssoit  OF  -Ks  111  irnc  am>   imus  ikia  i.  i:i>i  c  atih.n 
Tin:  scihMiL  OK  KiKCA  rioN,  Tin:  iM\i:i;sirv  of  i  iii(A(.o 


(ilXX   AND  (OMI'ANV 

FioSTuN  •    M;\V    ^■'ll;K  .   (UK  ACM.    |,(|N 


-^ofeK 


C()I>VKI(;HT,  191_*,  n\  WAI.TKH   SAlMiENT 

ALI,    KKiHTS    RESERVED 

•212.6 


I, INN  AND  ('  l^^•A^"^■  ■  I'l^o- 

I'KIhTuRS  •  IJUS'loN  •  L'.S.A. 


PREFACE 


cC 


DuriiiiX  the  jiast  few  years  the  amount  of  new  subject 
matter  rehuiiiy'  to  the  line  and  inchisti'ial  arts  in  elementary 
schools  has  ra})i(lly  increased.  Thi'  oroani/.ation  of  this 
material  into  a  form  invohing'  dehnite  progression  and 
reasoiud)le  standards  of  attainment  at  \arious  stages  has 
not  wliolly  kept  [)ace  with  its  introduction. 

The  considerations  here  presente(l  regarding  a  scheme  for 
such  organization  ha\ c  taken  shape  in  the  course  of  numerous 
conferences  with  those  interested  in  the  suhject.  and  as  a  result 
of  investigations  which  were  suggeste(l  hy  tlii'se  discussions. 

I  wish  to  make  acknowledgment  of  my  innnt'diate  indebt- 
edness in  this  endeavor  to  Professor  ( 'harles  I  Iubl)ard  .Judd 
of  The  I  niversity  of  Chicago,  who  urged  the  im[)ortance 
of  some  attempt  to  [)resent  a  surve\"  of  the  subji'ct. 

I  am  under  obligation  also  to  Professoi'  Fraid<;  M.  Leavitt 
of  The  I'niversity  of  Chicago,  .Mr.  .lanu'S  Hall,  formerh'  of 
the  Ethical  Culture  School  of  Xew  York  City.  .Mr.  Charles 
E.  Whitnev  of  the  Normal  School  of  Salem,  .Massachusetts. 
Mr.  Fred  II.  Daniels  of  Xewton.  Massachusetts,  and  .Mi'.  John 
( '.  I)i'odhead  of  l)Oston,  for  valuable  suggestions;  and  to 
AEss  Helen  E.  Cl.-aves.  Miss  Fucy  D.  Taylor,  and  .Miss 
.Vmy  Rachel  W'hittier  for  their  ludp  in  cai'i'x  iii'_;'  on  obscr- 
\ations  for  two  years  in  tlie  public  schools  of  Uoston. 

I  also  take  this  occasion  to  recogiii/.e  a  debt  of  long 
standing  to  Mr.  Ib'nr\-  '{"niiici-  Failrx-.  editoi-  of  the  Srlm,,! 
Ai-Ik  liunli.  wlio  hrst  dii'ectcfl  my  attention  to  the  e(liica- 
lioual   importance   of  the  arts. 

( 'in<  \(,u.  I  III  vols 

iii 


\V.  S. 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Arciiive 

in  2007  witii  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


littp://www.arcliive.org/details/fineindustrialarOOsargiala 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.    EorcATioxAi.   Axn    Pkac  ru  ai.   Values   ok   the    Fixe 

A  XI)     IXDISTUIAL    Al!TS 1 

II.     A     SlKXEV     OE     THE     Pl!()(i  H  ESSIOX     OE    W()1!K     THUOlCiH 

THE    (Ikades 17 


^11. 

/.IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VI  r. 


i;.\i)E   I o2 

HADES     II     AND     III       . 47 

HADES     IV    .\XD    V        .       .       .       .       . (i'2 

KADE    VI 70 

HADES    VII     AXD    VIII     ............  98 


INDEX i;u 


FIXE  AXL)   IXDISTIUAL  ARTS 
IX  ELEMEXTAKY  SCHOOLS 


(irAPTEi{  I 

KDrCA'l'lOXAI.   AND    l'UA(  TICAL   AAUKS   OF     I'lIE 
FINK   AND    IXDISTKIAL   ARTS 

Since  187'*  drawino",  eonsirnctivc  work,  and  (It'si^'ii  as 
coniinou-scliool  studies  lia\'e  been  sul)jeets  of  o-ciieral  discus- 
sion. The  Centennial  Exposition  in  Pliila(lel[)liia  in  1S7<) 
exerted  a  strong  iidiuence  in  faxor  of  public  education  in 
the  industrial  and  line  arts.  The  educatioiud  exhil)itions 
were  a  revelation  to  the  American  peo[)l('  of  the  ixissihil- 
ities  aloUL!,'  these  lines,  and  of  their  own  shortcomings. 
Since  then  drawing-,  constructive  work,  and  desi^'u  have 
received  steadily  increasing'  reco^'uit ion  in  clemeiUai'N'  edu- 
cation so  far  as  provision  for  instruction  and  e(|uipnicnt 
has   been   concerned. 

I'ntil  re(-cntly.  howcxcr,  these  subjects  Iuinc  lieeii  left 
lar^'elv  in  the  hands  of  specialists,  lioai'ds  of  e(hication. 
sui)eriiilcndents.  and  principals  liaxc  often  hcsitalcil  to 
make  suggest  ions  because  tliev  felt  that  they  had  not  re- 
cei\'ed  the  sort  of  traiinng  which  would  ht  them  to  judi^e 
m<'thods  and  results  in  these  snbjects.  'i'his  I'eelinL;-  has 
btM'ii  retMiforced  by  the  inlhience  of  the  tradition  that  e\en 

1 


2  FINE  AND   IXDrsTKIAL  A  UTS 

ordinary  al)ility  in  the  arts  comes  more  as  tlie  result  of 
intuitive  a[)preeiation   than   of   well-direeted   effort. 

Tlie  present  ^\■ide  aeeeptanee  of  tlie  manual  arts  as  an 
im[)ortant  part  of  general  education  is  lapidly  removing 
them  from  the  class  of  special  suhjects.  and  hoth  educators 
and  the  general  public  arc  now  taking  an  aclixc  interest  in 
them.  The  educator  recognizes  that  the  manual  arts  con- 
stitute a  uni(jue  t_v})e  of  aiudvsis  of  the  object i\'c  world. 
Each  science  deals  A\ith  material  from  a  pai'ticular  stand- 
point, and  each  different  kind  of  amdysis  adds  greater  sig- 
niticance  and  wider  range  to  experience.  The  contriljution 
which  the  mainud  ai1s  make  toward  a  moi'c  compi'ehensi\ c 
l)asis  foi'  mental  acti\"ity  is  to  a  great  degree  inaccessible 
by  other  methods  of  ap[)roach.  lie  linds  in  the  manual  arts 
a  line  of  activity  the  results  of  which  are  concrete  and  fur- 
nish a  visible  record  of  good  or  poor  work,  which  the  cliilil 
interprets  into  rational  terms  of  cause  and  effect  more  easilv 
tlian  is  possil)le  in  the  case  of  subjects  ^\■hich  deal  mainl\- 
with  language.  He  sees  in  them  an  o[)portunitv  for  obtain- 
ing ex[)erience  with  concrete  material  and  with  some  of  the 
processes  by  mIucIi  it  is  shapctl  to  human  needs,  lie  usc^ 
the  arts  as  a  method  of  devel()[)ing  and  mastering  ((main 
ideas  l)y  \\()rking  them  out  in  visible  j)roducts.  so  ihat 
materials  lu'comc  a  means  of  expressing  and  of  stimulating 
thought.  He  linds  also  that  these  arts  sometimes  furnish 
a  point  f)f  contact  with  the  interests  of  nianv  childicn  who 
a})parently  are  not  reache<l  l)y  more  formal  studies,  and  lliat 
these  interests  when  once  awakened  ai'e  likely  to  extend  to 
other  lines  of  school  work. 

The  general  pul)lic  more  frctpu-nily  expresses  its  con\ie- 
tions  in  terms  of  the  ad\antages  result  ing  in  later  life  from 
the  traiinng  in  mantud  arts  which  was  receixed   in  school. 


EDL'CATIOXAL  AND   PUAC'TK  AL  VALIKS 


3 


or  the  (lisiulvantages  experienced,  from  the  lack  of  such 
traininu;.  The  attainments  conunonly  described  as  most 
useful  and  desirable  by  these  peo[)le  who  view  the  subject 
from  the  standpoint  of  industrial  and  professional  occupa- 
tions may  be  o'cnerali/.ed  as  follows: 

.\bilitv  to  sketch  with  pencil  or  brush  so  as  to  show  how 
an  object  appears  or  how  it  is  constructed,  oi-  to  illustrate 
one's  ideas  or  record  ones  observations. 

Skill  in  the  use  of  connnon  tools  and  materials,  and 
ability  to  plan  and  work  out  problems  iuvoIviiiL;'  ordinary 
constructive  processes  —  such  knowledge  and  ability  as 
every   householder   needs. 

An  appreciation  of  what  is  in  good  taste  a'sthetically, 
especially  as  I'cgards  the  things  which  constitute  one's 
immediate  environment,  and  sul'licient  knowledge  of  such 
matters  to  justify   one's  taste. 

Some  ac(piaintance  with  excellent  t'xam[)les  of  ai1  in 
architecture,  painting,  sculpture,  and  the  crat'ls.  and  a  dis- 
criminating ca[)acity  for  enjoyment  ol  beauty  of  form  and 
color  in  nature  and  ai't. 

These  advantages  thus  stated  by  people  outside  the 
schools,  in  terms  of  dt'linite  attainment  which  results  in  in- 
creased ei'licicncy  and  enjoyment,  do  not  coidlict  with  the 
idea  of  the  educator.  If  acce[)ted,  these  standards  constitute 
a  basis  foi'  estimating  the  success  of  manual  arts  in  school 
courses.  When  children  leave  the  high  school  iheir  abilities  in 
this  held  may  be  measured  about  as  delinilely  as  in  any  other. 

'i'he  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  pi'cseiit  some  considera- 
tions on  the  following  (|ueslions,  'v\  hicli  ai'ise  from  the 
])resent    situat  ion  : 

What  ai'c  the  distiucti\('  functions  nf  the  xai'ious  sid)- 
iccts  taic'lit    under  liic  liea<l  of  manual  arts   in  elcmeiitary 


KINK   AND   IXDl'STKIAL  AUTS 


education  ?  TTow  shall  iiistnictiou  be  oro-aiiized  so  that 
progress  in  attainment  shall  Ije  evident  from  year  to  vear  ? 
What  are  reasonable  standards  of  attainment  at  any  given 
stage  ? 

The  general  statements  that  learning  to  draw  is  learrnng 
to  see.  that  drawing  is  a  valuable  language,  that  consn'nctiNc 
work  [iroduees  accuracy  and  ertieiem-y  in  dealing  with  vdw 
materials,  that  design  develo[)s  taste  and  awaicens  ai)pre- 
ciation  of  1)eauty,  are  not  now  considered  as  linal  or  as 
suftieiently  delinite  to  justify  the  connnunity  in  leaving  the 
matter  wholly  with  the  specialist.  Further  (juestions  arise, 
such  as:  How  does  the  secnng  which  results  frtun  drawing 
differ  from  that  which  exists  where  drawing  is  not  taught  ? 
Are  children  who  comi)lete  the  elementary-school  courses 
able  to  use  this  language  of  drawing  freely  as  a  connnon, 
cop.venient  means  of  e.\[)ri'ssi()n  ?  Does  consti'uctive  work- 
as  taught  produce  accuracy,  efliciency.  the  ])lcasure  of  in- 
telligent mastery  of  material,  and  an  appreciation  of  things 
iu  terms  of  the  skill  and  elfort  i-e(piired  to  [)roduce  them? 
Does  it  arouse  industrial  interests  and  a  desiiv  to  be  of 
service  in  the  world  ?  \\niat  delinite  signs  of  better  ta>te 
are  evident  in  children  who  com[)lete  an  elementary-school 
coitrse  which  includes  design,  when  conipare(l  with  childi'cn 
who  have  had  no  training  in  that  line?  Ai:e  there  jil)iects 
of  fine  art  which  awaken  more  enjoyment,  and  phases  of 
beautv  in  nature  which  give  moi'c  pleasure  on  account  of 
the  instruction  which  has  been  gixcn  ?  A\'hat  stc[)S  have 
led  to  this  api)reciation  ?  There  is  need  of  detailed  testing 
of  methods  and  examination  of  results  in  terms  of  such 
(pu'stions  as  these. 

In  elementarv  schools  only  rudiments  of  the  arts  can  be 
tau'i'ht,  such  as  the  Ijcginnings  of  frt'c-hand  draw  ing  :  simple 


KDL'CATIOXAL  AM)   I'HACTKAL   VAUKS 


forms  of  constnu'tive  work  and  prohlcms  in  design,  espc- 
eiallv  as  rdatt'd  to  i-omnion  things;  and  an  awakening;-  of 
some  response  to  beanty  in  natnre  and  art.  \\'ork  in  these 
lines,  however,  has  [)roved  to  be  of  g-einiine  vahie.  even  w  hen 
instruction  ends  in  tlie  elementary  schools.  It  deals  with  fac- 
tors which  have  a  cdose.  permanent  relationship  to  the  life 
and  work  of  [)eople  at  large,  and  presents  a  typi'  of  training 
which  the  eliild  has  a  right  to  ex[)ect  from  the  conunnnity. 

The  various  phases  of  manual  expression  are  not  marked 
off  by  sharply  detined  limits.  It  is  im})ossil)le  to  construct 
an  object  well  without  exereising  some  judgment  in  design, 
or  to  design  an  ol)ject  satisfactorily  without  some  knowledge 
of  construction  and  some  ability  in  I'cpresentation.  The 
school  activities  continually  call  for  sinuiltaneous  work  along 
all  three  of  these  lines.  They  differ  sufficiently,  however, 
to  allow  of  sepai'ate  discussion.  The  following  [)aragraphs 
consider  more  in  detail  the  values  attributed  by  l)oth  eihi- 
eators  and  the  general  [)ublie  to  these  three  lines  of  study 
in  the  [)ublic  school. 

Iii'/irrst/ifiifinti.  Drawing  is  a  language,  a  mode  of  repro- 
ducing i(h'as,  and  as  such  is  a  means  of  forming  and  devel- 
oping tiiese  ideas.  A  child  who  draws  dot-s  not  set  fortii 
ideas  already  [)erfcctly  formed,  but  [)erfects  them  in  [»art  b\' 
the  very  act  of  setting  them  forth.  Drawing  tlius  Ix'coines 
a  tool  with  which  to  think. 

Little    children    draw   almost    wholly    fnnii    iiiiagiiiat  ion. 

and    \\hd   in   drawing  a   means  of  excrcisiu'^-   tlicir   mental 

imacrcrv  Ilv  pultiu''-  it  into  some  sort  of  \  isible  form.    This 
o     .      »^  1  .-> 

l)i'oeess  appeal's  to  stinmlate  menial  a(ii\il\.  ami  at  lirst 
produces  a  (h'gi'ce  of  sal  isfact  imi.  h(i\\c\er  crude  the  results 
may  be.  because  the  ciiild  iccogiii/.es  his  id(>as  in  the  draw- 
iim's,  althou'ih  the  marks    mas    be  uniiil«'lliL!'ible    to  dthcrs. 


6  FIXK  AND  IXDUSTIIIAL  ARTS 

Later  conies  a  desire  that  (Irawing-  sliall  be  more  than  a 
motor  ontlet  for  imagination,  and  tliat  the  result  shall  repre- 
sent the  idea  well  enough  not  only  to  recall  the  thought  to 
the  one  ^\h()  made  it.  hut  also  to  express  that  thought  intel- 
ligibly to  otiiers.  Thus  begins  an  ap})reciation  of  the  imjtor- 
tance  of  art  as  a  means  of  social  connnunication.  This  leads 
to  a  more  careful  contemplation  of  oi)jects  for  the  sake  of 
obtaining  data  f(jr  more  satisfactoiy  representation,  and  a 
corresponding  increase  in  knowledge  of  form  and  in  trust- 
worthiness of  the  testimony  of  the  senses  is  de\eloped. 

Children  trained  to  express  themselves  l)y  drawing  learn 
to  aiudyze  and  to  interpret  their  visual  impressions.  Draw- 
ing I'rom  objects  re(piires  a  selection  of'  the  charactei'istic 
features.  After  the  early  period  of  satisfaction  with  crude 
svmbols  has  passed,  and  children  reacli  the  stage  Avhen  thev 
desii'c  to  re[)resent  a[)i)earances  truthfully,  they  must  learn 
to  recognize,  among  the  bewildering  com[)lexity  of  details 
Avhich  nature  [)resents,  those  which  are  signiticant  —  wliich, 
if  reproduced,  will  rej)resent  the  object.  Hand,  eyes,  and 
mind  are  busy  trying  to  interpret  what  is  seen  into  terms 
of  lines  or  shapes.  Drawing  thus  develops  a  specilic  kind  of 
analysis  which  is  impossible  when  tlie  tei'ms  cnn)l(tyed  are 
the  more  general  and  less  ol)jective  Ncrbal  descriptions. 

Drawing  })artakes  more  of  the  nature  of  a  convention 
than  is  generally  supi)osed.  An  oi'iental  or  an  occidt'utal 
draws  each  in  tlu'  way  he  regards  as  best,  yet  the  I'csults 
differ  remarkably.  Each  is  expressing  himself  in  his  own 
gi'aphic  dialect.  l*'or  example,  western  art  makes  general  use 
of  effects  of  illumination,  shade,  and  sIkkIow  as  ])r(»niiiient 
pictoi'ial  features,  while  in  orii-ntal  pictures  such  effects 
are  largeh'  ignored.  'I'he  objects  de[)i<-ted  seldom  cast 
shades   or  shadows,   and  variations   of  light   and  dark   are 


EDUCATIOXAI.  AND   rUAC'TICAL  VALIKS 


usuallv  due  to  actnal  dift'crences  in  local  coloi'.  In  these 
pictures,  huwevei'.  elements  ap[)ear,  the  beauty  and  ett'i'c- 
tiveness  of  which  many  westei'u  artists  never  a[)[)recialed 
till  they  studied  oriental  art.  The  ap[)reciation  of  another 
people's  methotl  of  drawing  is  akin  to  an  ap[)i'eciation  of 
another  language,  in  the  rcNclations  ii  gives  of  differeiu 
ways  of  seeing  and  thinking. 

Drawing,  as  it  exists  at  })resent,  is  the  I'esult  of  an 
evolution.  Its  vocabulary  has  been  added  t(»  by  each  gen- 
eration, and  end)odies  the  accuunilati'(l  results  of  human 
observations.  One  imagines  that  he  is  expressing  himself 
in  terms  suggesti'(l  directly  by  thi'  object,  but  this  is  only 
partly  true.  Drawing  an  object  means  translating  one's 
{)t'rceptions  into  terms  which  have  been  e\"olved  bv  the  race, 
and  which  demand  can'ful  selection.  It  means  organizing 
ones  seusatic)ns  so  as  to  determine  what  produces  the 
impression,  and  the  modes  in  which  that  im[)ression  can  be 
inter})reted.  To  draw  an  object  re(iuires  a  mental  activity 
comparable  to  that  which  occurs  when  a  thought  is  trans- 
late(l  from  oni^  language  into  another. 

In  addition  to  these  general  educational  values,  elemen- 
tary representation  is  of  direct  incbistrial,  scieiuitic,  and 
a'Sthetic  importance. 

To  the  man  engage(l  in  constructive  woi'k.  drawing  of- 
fers a  means  of  endless  experimentation.  Workers  in  metal 
or  wood,  when  discussing  a  mechanical  or  const  rud  i\-e 
[»rol)lem,  often  can  present  its  different  possibilities  and 
deline  the  I'csnlts  almost  as  well  b\-  the  use  of  the  pencil 
as  by  manipulating  tiie  actual  iwatcrial.  ( 'oust  ruct  i\c 
sketching  is  also  a  great  stimulus  to  iii\ciiti(in.  The  more 
linished  woi-king  drawings  afford  a  means  of  rccinding  all 
necessar\'  data  reiiardiuL:'  loim  and  construction. 


8  FINK  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

A  mrtiiufac'turer  witli  lumsually  Avide  experit'iice  thus 
refers  to  the  vahie  of  ability  to  sketcli  and  draw: 

I  wisli  to  fin]ihasi/.c  tlic  iiuportanct'  of  industrial  drawing'  for 
tli(>  mass  of  trade  workers  in  those  lines  of  inanufacturinn'  where 
the  artistic  or  a'sthetic  sense  is  not  sujiposed  to  hold  a  jironiinent 
]ilaee.  For  exaniiile,  in  the  line  of  machine  luiildinL;'  the  art  of 
drawing;'  has  a  very  imj>ortant  relation  to  our  industrial  future. 
To  this  particular  class  of  mechanics  drawing-  has  a  broad  field  of 
nsefuhiess  :  first,  liecause  it  is  a  valuable  means  of  expression,  since 
tlie  mechanic  who  is  abh^  to  express  himself  by  a  rajtidly  made  draw- 
ing is  inspired  ther(d)y  to  more  and  better  thouyiit ;  second,  liei'ause 
it  0}iens  up  for  him  especially  a  broad  field  for  ex])erimentation 
and  choice. 

A\'hen  l)y  a  sketcli  the  manufacturer  or  mechanic  can  i)lace  before 
himself  and  others  iiumy  ways  of  (h)ing  a  thing,  he  at  once  makes 
com]iarisons.  and  immediately  chooses  what  he  deems  the  best,  the 
fittest,  or  the  most  beautiful.  He  hits  the  nuirk  after  su(di  a  com- 
parison, because  with  his  skt'tches  he  has  tried  many  stduMues  and 
com])ared  them. 

Fxperimentation,  comjiarison,  and  (dioice  mark  tlie  way  of  ad- 
vancement. Rut  life  is  too  short  to  ti'v  many  expei-inuuits,  uidess 
the  methods  of  trying  them  are  very  simple.  To  build  things  of 
wood  and  stone  and  metal  in  orch'r  to  test  them  ami  to  prove 
wlii(di  oiu'  is  best  and  fittest  re(iuires  too  much  \\aste  of  lime  and 
luaterial.  liut  the  I'ealm  of  experimentation  that  is  possible  with  a 
]iencil  is  wouderfid  and  fascinating:  it  is  almost  as  unlimited  as 
thought  itself. 

I  have  asked  myself  from  whence  conies  this  fascinati(Ui  as  we 
find  it  in  the  shops;  and  I  think  it  is  because  through  the  art  of 
drawing,  by  delineating  and  by  designing,  the  mecdianie  himsidf 
becomes  the  creator  of  things.  lie  not  only  learns  to  see  clearly 
things  emanating  from  others,  but.  iiehold,  he  finds  he  can  express 
his  own  ideas  to  himself  and  to  others,  and  above  all  he  recogni/,es 
that  they  are  his  own  evolulion. 

For  mechanics  of  all  grades  and  ranks  the  habit  of  ski'tching  and 
drawing  bei-oines  a  great  developing  force.  For  a  mecdianic  drawing 
becomes  the  avenue  oiit  of  himself  into  the  universe.  lie  is  not  only 
learuiug  about   other  people  and  other  things,  as  we  do  in  the  study 


KDUCATIOXAL   AND   IMIACTICAI.   VALl  KS 


9 


of  history  and  ^vonrapliy.  but  he  is  rcvcaliii^'  himself  to  Iiiiiiself  and 
to  others:  and  the  thiui^s  re\eaU'd  are  new  —  new  to  liiui  and  new 
to  the  worhL    This  to  liini  is  the  inspiring'  quality  of  his  work.' 

In  sciciitilic  studies,  drawing-  focuses  attention  upon, 
and  (juickens  ol)ser\'ation  of,  facts  of  forms  and  slrnclure, 
renderiuL;'  the  senses  nioi'e  accurate  in  tlieir  testimony 
and   furnishing  a  means  of  making  delinite   rt'cords. 

Representation  is  also  the  lano-uao-c  of  the  tine  arts  of 
painting  and  sculpture.  The  regular  work  in  di'awing  in 
elementarv  schools,  involving,  as  it  does,  conliniu'd  use  of 
lines,  light  and  dark,  and  of  eoloi'.  is  giving  childi-en  constant 
practice  in  expressing  their  ideas  and  observations  by  means 
of  tlu'  same  Nocahnlary  which  the  artist  himself  employs. 
These  attem[)ts  to  use,  even  though  crudely,  the  terms  by 
which  art  is  e\[)ressed  are  necessary  to  that  kind  of  artistic 
appreciation  which  yields  the  fullest  [)leasure.  The  relation 
of  draw  ing  to  art  resembles  that  of  language  to  literature. 

Instructors  in  drawing  should  regard  the  elementary 
phases  (d'  the  subject  as  a  scieiu-e  and  not  as  something 
acipiircd  b\-  intuition.  'I'hey  nmst  choose  between  acourse 
planne(l  for  the  few  in  every  school  who  have  what  is  eom- 
monl\  calkMl  "talent,"  and  a  course  [)laiuied  for  the  major- 
it\'  of  tlie  children  and  within  easy  reach  of  those  of  no 
s})ecial  abihty.  While  any  [)ul)lic-scliool  system  should  take 
account  of  special  talent  and  encourage  and  conser\'(>  it, 
vet  in  the  eh'mentar\'  gi'ades  such  work  sluuild  l)e  phuuied 
as  will  iustif\'  itseU'  on  genei'al  grounds  and  be  \ahiable 
for  alb  whalcN'er  their  future  occu|)at  ions  are  to  be.  The 
work    outhned    should   l)e   such   as   can    be  lau'ihl    in    lai'ijc 


'  Froni  an  addri'ss  l)y  Mr.  .Mili<ni  1'.  Iliuuiiis.  jwesident  of  the  Nornm 
I''.iiieiv  Wlici'l  Co..  Worcester.  M  a»ailiusi  ■!  1 ,-.  priiiled  iu  the  sixl  y-eiuiit  h 
Aiuni'il   l:rj,i,il  n/l/ii    M((s>^ar/nis(ll s  Slillr   Ilniinl  of  EiUtnil in,i .    I'.IOl. 


10 


FIXE   AND   IXDISTIMAL   AIMS 


part  l)y  tlu'  I'et^Hilai'  grade  teaclu'i'  and  be  wvW  dDiic  by  as 
large  a  pr(i[)()rti()ii  of  the  children  as  can  accomplish  the 
work  given  in  other  subjects. 

In  order  to  cai'ry  out  such  a  [)lan  it  is  necessary  to  teach 
drawing  in  the  most  direct  and  simple  way  })ossible,  testing 
methods  by  the  resulting  increase  in  ability  to  draw  on  the 
part  of  the  majority  of  the  children.  A  lack  of  such  im- 
provement in  the  many  should  be  interpivtetl  as  a  fault  of 
the  method  I'ather  than  of  the  children.  Results  have  already 
shown  that  the  majority  of  children  can  learn  to  draw  suf- 
ficiently well  for  pur[)Oses  of  ordinary  practical  ex[)ression 
with  pencil  or  brush,  and  can  be  led  to  appre<-iate  what  is 
in  good  taste,  as  readily  and  generally  as  the\"  can  [)i'ogress 
in  other  studies  of  the  school  curriculum.  S[)ecial  talent  is 
a  factor  to  be  reckoned  with  in  elementar\'  drawing  on  the 
same  basis  as  in  elementary  language  or  mathematics. 

Coiistrurf/oii.  Construeti\e  work  providi's  an  objective, 
permanent  ty[)e  of  expression  which  ap[)eai's  to  connuand 
the  keen  interest  of  all  children.  Jt  brings  ex[)erience  in 
shaping  raw  material  till  that  material  embodies  the  worker's 
ideas  in  concrete  form,  'i'lie  worker  is  thus  brought  into 
expi'rimental  contact  with  the  great  range  of  constructive 
acti\'ities  which  constittite  a  world  never  fully  o]:)ene(|  u[) 
bv  words.  His  own  t'XperieniH'  is  illuminated  by  a  sort  of 
ap})reciation  otherwise  inaccessible.  All  this  I'csults  in 
buikling  u[)  a  tv[)e  of  thinking  ami  [)lanning  which  should 
acconn)an\'  other  forms  of  education  ami  make  its  contribu- 
tion bt'fore  habits  of  thinking  and  [)lainiiug  lia\"e  become 
fixed  along  moi'c  .abstract  lines. 

Constructive  work  gives  pi'actical  familiarity  with  com- 
mon tools,  pi-ocesscs.  and  materials,  and  develops  a  mmpi'e- 
hiMision   of  problems  of  ordinary  construction   which   e\'ei'v 


KDICATIOXAL   AND    lMtA(   TICAL   \AIJES  11 

oiu'  should  [)()sst'ss.  It  hriun's  llic  iii\  i^orat ion  of  dcaliiiL;' 
witli  tlu'  uii\  arviii!^'.  iin[)artial  laws  of  matter,  and  of  hciiit;- 
coniptdK'd  to  face  the  obvious  iitness  or  uulitiiess  of  visil)le 
results.  It  awakens  [)leasure  in  sha[)ino;  material  to  a  pre- 
deti'rmiiied  form  hy  patit'uce,  foresio'ht,  and  skill.  It  hi'in^-s 
a  healthy  realization  of  the  gaj)  which  exists  l)etN\'een  an 
idea  and  its  tinished  embodiment  in  concrete  form,  and  of 
the  persistence  necessary  when  one  deals  with  the  slowly 
yielding-  conditions  of  stubborn  material.  This  realization 
develo[)s  a  seriousness  in  nndertakini;'  [)rol)lems,  because  of 
the  knowledtj^e  o-ained  by  experii'uce  as  to  tlu^  amount  of 
time  and  effort  in\ol\cd  in  carryinn'  them  to  com[)letion, 
l)ut  it  is  accompanied  by  the  i)leasure  of  a  consciousness 
of  skill  and  of  increasing  mastery  over  raw  material. 

School  authorities  sometimes  discuss  the  (piestion  as  to 
whetlu'r  any  time  in  the  burdent'd  school  program  can  be 
sparcil  for  occupations  involving  muscular  activity,  and 
presume  to  settle  tlu'  matter  by  oHicial  action.  The  natui'e 
of  children  has  already  settled  that  ([Uestion  in  the  affirma- 
tix'c.  Motoi'  acti\ity  will  be  an  important  part  of  any  school 
program.  Piobably  the  only  jurisdiction  which  the  author- 
ities actually  exercise  in  the  matter  is  in  deciding  whether 
these  activities  shall  hindei'  or  help  school  work  :  whether 
tliey  shall  ai)pear  as  mischief-making  or  as  manual  arts. 
'  ('onstructi\('  work  is  not  oid\-  an  essential  element  in 
general  eilucation,  valuable  alike  to  the  scholar  and  the 
artisan  :  it  is  also  a  factor  in  awakening  \oealional  interests 
and  promoting  vocational  eriicicncw  'ilie  fact  that  a  large 
proportion  of  the  school  population.  \aiiousl\'  estimatc(l 
ti'om  one  half  to  1\\<i  thirds,  drops  out  during  oi'  at  the 
end  ol  the  eleiiicntar\-school  course  to  go  tt»  wdi'k,  should 
be  considered    in   its  full    signilicanee   by  cducatoi's.      These 


12  FIXE  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

cliildren  never  enter  a  liio'li  school.  They  are  too  yonng  to 
go  into  skilled  industries.  A  few  rise  through  any  eireuni- 
stanees,  but  the  majority  drift  I'roni  one  to  another  unskilled 
occupation,  taking  whatever  })ays  best.  'Jdiey  spend  two 
im[)ortant  years  in  employments  whieh  present  no  industrial 
interest  and  offer  no  vocational  outlook.  Such  work  is 
usually  monotonous  drudgery,  whieh  develops  an  uidortu- 
nate  attittule  of  mind  toward  work  and  compels  the  child 
to  seek  all  his  pleasure  outside  of  his  occu[)ation. 

It  has  been  shown  that  certain  kinds  of  industrial  educa- 
tion can  come  intcj  elementary  schools  without  interfering 
with  the  (juality  of  the  academic  work,  and  that  such  edu- 
cation serves  to  keep  children  in  school  and  to  awaken 
occupational  intei'ests  which  serve  as  a  reenforcement  of 
general  educatioiud  interests. 

Certain  dangers  attending  the  introduction  of  industi'ial 
education  into  elementary  schools  readily  suggest  them- 
selves, but  they  can  scarcely  exceed  the  dangers  arising 
from  a  lack  of  any  suitable  provision  foi'  properly  satisfviug 
the  desire  which  manifests  itself  at  about  the  sixth  year  of 
school,  namely  to  come  into  touch  with  tlie  activities  of  the 
world  and  to  join  with  others  in  making  a  contribution  to 
the  general  welfai'c.  Schools  should  be  e(pii[)ped  to  offer 
such  training  as  \\ill  promote  the  ultimate  interests  of  the 
children,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  to  coml)at  etf'ectively  anv 
attem[)t  to  ex[)loit  the  children  counnerciallv  by  littiiig 
them  in  school  to  perform  particular,  unskilleil  processes 
to  be  iiumediately  titilized  in   local  industries. 

From  an  educational  standpoint  the  \ahie  of  a  \'o<-ational 
interest  is  not  primarily  economic,  but  I'clates  to  the  i'act 
that  when  such  an  interest  is  awakeiieil  it  is  lii<ely  soon 
to  become  doiuimuit  and  form  a  ccim'i'  around  w  hich  other 


KDICATIOXAL  AND   rilACTR'AI.   N'ALIKS  1:'> 

interests  cluster.  A  domiiiatino-  interest  tends  to  collect 
and  or^-anize  varyint;-  and  many-sided  interests.  Tlu'  dif- 
ferent stutlies  of  the  school  curriculum  oft'cr  a  laro-e  body 


(;i:ai)i:s 

II 

loii  School 

100 
90 

12         3         4         5         0         7      Gnuu-    I        n      HI     ly 

mar 

_„__ 

"^^k 

K; 

N 
\ 

\ 

70 
00 

i  \ A" 

I 

;\  \ 

i 

\ 

40 
30 
20 
10 

! 

\ 
\ 

\  1 

i 

\    \ 

! 

1        2         .3         4         5         (3        7     Gnim-    I        11     III     IV 

mar 

Fn;.  1.    Diairrain  sliowiiiir  irradcs  at  wiiicli  eliildreii  leave  school.    IJesults 

lu-eseiited    \,y    Dr.    'I'lii  iriidike    are    iudirated    liy    dotted    line;    tlios,.'    \,y 

Dr.  Avers,  by  solid   lini' 

From  Dr.  Fconai-d  1'.  Ayi-rs"s  "  Lauuards  in  ( )iir  Srhools."  ji.  71 

(>\'  infoiinalidn  and  many  di\'cro-ciit  interests.  These  are 
impiiitanl  tn  e(hicati(»n  hnl  are  not  its  end.  The  ultimate 
|)iii-])(ise  of  education  is  the  dexcli  ipiiieiit  ol  an  indi\idiial 
wiiose  mental  interests,  ahhoiioh  \;irie(l,  aie  well  oroani/ed. 
1  he  chief  factor  in  mental  or'-'ani/at  ion  is  a  strono',  central 


14 


FIXE   AXl)    INDl'snUAL   ARl'S 


selective  interest  whieli  l)riii^'s  seatteretl  thino-s  into  place. 
The  ()ccu[)<iti(>nal  interest  a[)[)ears  to  l)e  the  natui'al  center 
toward  whicli  otliers  readily  convert;e. 

/A'^•////^  The  stndy  of  design  in  elenientaiy  schools  t'nr- 
nishes  a  means  of  exei'cisinn"  and  thns  dev(do[)inn'  n'ood 
taste  in  connection  with  the  thing's  which  make  n[)  the 
en\ironment  of  e\eryday  life,  and  of  awakeniiiL;'  apprecia- 
tion of  heanty  in  natui-e  and  in  ait.  (iood  taste  im[)lies 
more  than  information  ii-oarding  what  is  n'(>od.  It  means 
that  the  rig'ht  sort  of  thiiio's  awaken  pleasnre,  and  that  a 
desire  is  aronsed  which  demands  excellence  i'or  its  satisfac- 
tion. The  power  to  discern  l)etween  the  mi'icdy  pretty,  with 
attraetiveness  \\hich  is  sn[)erficial  and  transitory,  and  that 
which  is  permanently  and  niuversally  heantifnl.  o'ives  capac- 
ity for  an  enjoyment  tin-  possibilities  of  which  are  nnlimited. 

.\de(p.uite  appreciation  of  heanty  seldom  comes  withont 
definite  training'.  It  de[)ends  lari^'ely  upon  estal)lishe(l  hahits 
of  seeinn'.  As  one  tinds  the  oljjective  wr)rld  assuming'  a  cer- 
tain order  pleasiuL;'  to  his  intcdlect  after, he  knows  the  scien- 
tific catei-ories  and  can  reari'an^'e  facts  in  tei'ms  of  tl'iem,  so 
he  hnds  that  after  he  knows  the  best  tyi>es  of  artistic  inter- 
pretation, which  ha\('  S(decte(l  fi'om  the  mass  those  elements 
which  ai'e  ;esthetically  [)leasini4'  and  ha\'e  portrayed  them, 
lie  tends  to  recast  his  own  perce])tions  in  those  terms. 

The  studv  of  desi^'n  in  public  schools  should  contribute 
dirceth'  to  an  appreciation  of  tlie  ))eauty  of  the  landscape 
and  of  plant  and  animal  forms.  inTdidso  of  the  artistic  pos- 
sibilities of  the  conunuinty  in  its  natural  and  architectural 
features  and  in  its  local  industri(\s.- 

Unless  the  problems  of  desio'n  I'tdate  to  familiar  sur- 
roundino-s.  ]>u})ils  ai'c  likidy  to  consider  the  term  '  anistie" 
as   one   which  applies   only   to  uiuisual   thing's;   whereas  it 


KDrCATlOXAI.   AND    I'KACIK  Al.   VALIKS  lo 


does  not  (K'scriln'  tlie  i-lass  to  \\liicli  an  ol)j('('t  1h'1oiil;'s.  hut 
means  tlial  the  object,  l)eeaiise  of  its  adecjuaey,  and  the 
rerinenient  of  its  essential  parts  and  |)ro[)ortions.  and  the 
o-raee  and  litness  of  its  decoration,  if  it  [)ossesst's  anv,  is 
unnsnally  excellent  of  its  kind.  A  kitchen  chair  or  ntensil 
mav  l)e  artistic  and  thus  in  its  sphere  [)ro\e  a  source  of  con- 
tinind  [)leasure  as  truly  as  may  a  vase  or  a  picture.  The 
o'eneral  appearance  of  written  school  work,  arrangement  of 
plants  and  flowers.  franiiuL!,'  and  han^'in^-  of  [)ictures,  choice 
of  wall  papers,  ru^'s,  furnitui-e,  etc..  are  amoni;'  the  oppor- 
tunities of  exercising-  that  api)recialion  of  order  and  fitness 
which  is  an  important  jtai't  of  artistic  taste. 

1)\'  collecti(tns  of  photo!4'raphs  or  other  re[)i'escntations. 
children  may  hecome  ac(|uainted  with  the  best  desions  f(ir 
])i'idL;'es.  water  fronts,  public  buildings  and  [)ri\  ate  houses  of 
all  classes,  park  furnislhno-s,  scul[)ture.  fountains,  and  other 
thino's  which  may  contribute  to  beauty  in  modern  com- 
nuinities.  and  thus  become  interested  in  the  ways  in  which 
tow  ns  and  cities  are  sohino-  the  problems  of  <'ivic  i)t'autv. 

Schools  should  n'ive  [)upils  some  ac<pnuntance  with  L;-(tod 
examples  of  drawing-.  [)aintin(4'.  and  sculptui'e.  I^\en  where 
collections  of  oi'in'inals  are  not  a\ailal)Ie,  al)undaiu  material 
is  at  hand  in  the  shape  of  photoL;raphs.  illustrations,  and 
the  best  nf  modern  color  [)rints. 

Pictures  which  a])[)ear  in  schools  ma\'  be  di\ide(l  into  two 
general  classes:  those  which  are  of  use  mainly  as  sources 
(»f  infiii'mation  —  historical.  ^'cdM'i'ajihical.  sciciiiilic.  etc: 
and  thdsc  which  are  for  the  purpose  of  awakening;'  a'slhetic 
cnjoNnifUt.  The  former  should  usually  br  regarded  as  a 
portfolio  collection,  to  be  bi-on<_;lit  out  and  wsrd  when  occa-- 
sion  demands  and  t  hen  piu  a\\a\'.  The  lat  tcr  just  ify  a  more 
permanent  [)lacc  upon  the  walls.  ^  " 


16  FIXE  AND  IXDISTKIAL  ARTS 

The  main  question  is  not  liow  many  pictures  can  be 
brought  within  the  child's  range  of  ^■isi()U,  l)ut  on  how  many 
can  his  imagination  be  awakened  to  lay  hold.  In  the  days 
when  pictures  were  fewer,  a  child  would  often  pore  for  a 
long  time  over  some  poor  print  till  his  imagination  wan- 
dered far  into  its  perspective  and  lived  with  its  characters. 
Such  a  print  sometimes  grew  to  be  so  full  of  suggestion 
that  in  later  years  the  gro\\n  man  hesitated  to  throw  it  away 
even  after  he  had  come  to  see  its  artistic  worthlessness. 
Even  the  wayward  cracks  in  the  walls  of  old  l)are  school- 
rooms became  interesting  to  the  imaginations  of  children 
who  pictured  scenes  among  them,  as  one  sees  constella- 
tions in  the  stars.  When  imagination  can  Ix;  set  at  [)lay 
inider  the  stinmlus  and  direction  of  a  good  [)icture,  feelings 
may  be  awakened  that  later  will  develop  into  a'stlietic 
enjoyment. 

]Many  small  pictures  distract  the  attention  of  the  pupils. 
A  few  excellent  pictures  in  a  classroom,  appropriately  chosen 
and  careftilly  hung,  usually  have  a  liner  intluence  and  give 
more  enduring  memories  than  a  large  number  scattered 
about  the  walls. 


CHAPTER  ir 
A  srUVEY  OV  THE  PRCXiRESSlOX  OF  WORK  TIIROUOII 

THE  (;rai)E8 

The  folic )wino-  survey  o(  the  progression  of  work  in  the 
arts  through  the  elementary  grades  forms  the  basis  for  the 
suggestions  offered  in  more  detailed  form  in  the  following 
ehapters  regarding  woi'k  particularly  a[)propriate  for  various 
stages  of  maturity.  The  material  was  obtained  in  part  by 
presenting  similar  to[)ies  to  pu[)ils  of  different  ages  in  many 
seliools,  to  discover  wliere  the  subjects  were  assimilated  most 
readily  and  processes  mastered  with  greatest  ease. 

Teachers  of  the  manvud  arts  will  recognize  the  fact  that 
types  of  interest  and  al)ility  here  reconnnended  to  s[)ecial 
consideration  in  certain  grades  usually  manifest  themselves 
to  a  greater  or  less  degree  throughout  all  grades.  For 
instance,  children  in  (irades  1  and  II  are  often  interested 
in— tH'presenting  [)ropfutions  and  shapes  truthfully,  and  in 
handling  such  advanced  implements  as  woodworking  tools, 
wiiile  in  these  [)ages  emphasis  upon  those  phases  of  drawing 
and  construction  is  deferred  until  a  more  mature  age.  This 
survev  of  work  is  not  meant  to  im[)ly  that  capabilities  do 
not  appear  earlier  than  hei't;  recognized,  or  caiuiot  ])c  inei- 
dentally  encouraged  to  a  considerai)le  extt-nt  with  advan- 
tage. It  seeks  niei-elv  to  suggest  the  perioils  when  results 
seem  to  indicate  that  ])ai'ticular  phases  can  be  most  readily 
assimilated  anil  certain  j)rocesses  be  niasiei-ed  with  greatest 
economv  of  time  and  effort  and  become  a  trust\\()rtliy  basis 

17 


18  FIXI-:   AND   IXDl'STHIAL  ARTS 

for  later  work.  Children  ot'ten  s})eii(l  nuicli  time  in  {)riinary 
gi'udes  over  what  eould  be  i^-ras^jed  with  far  less  effort  a 
few  years  later;  and  continue  in  grannnar  grades  to  be 
liandicapped  l)v  lack  of  knowledge  and  skill  which  might 
have  been  gained  easily  in  lower  grades  by  special  em[)ha- 
si.s  and  drill  at  the  right  time. 

Rejvese)ttatl<m.  (ieneral  nse  of  drawing  as  a  connnon 
means  of  expression  and  desci'iption  is  of  lirst  importance 
throughout  all  the  grades.  'I'lic  results  of  this  practical  us(> 
of  drawing  should  be  studied  at  each  stage,  and  the  evident 
deficiencies  in  knowledge  and  skill  should  \h)  remedied  l)y 
intensive  study.  Under  the  present  arrangement  of  the 
school  [)rogram  the  best  opportunity  for  offering  this  in- 
tensive study  appears  to  occur  during  the  time  devoted  to 
special  lessons  in  drawing. 

There  are,  then,  two  phases  of  the  ^\•ork  :  namely,  the 
general  practical  use  of  drawing,  and  the  contiiuious  contri- 
bution of  knowledge  and  skill  gained  by  concentrating  for 
a  time  u})on  intensive  study  of  particular  aspects  of  tlu; 
subject.  In  order  to  [)lan  this  intensive  study  most  econom- 
ically it  becomes  necessary  to  iind  out  what  phases  should 
receive  emphasis  in  different  grades,  and  for  what  deli- 
ciencies  in  skill  innnediate  instruction  is  the  best  remedy, 
and  what  may  be  left  to  disapjiear  naturally  as  maturity 
increases. 

The  firtjt.iitages  in  I'eprescntation  appear  to  be  domimitiMl 
by  an  interest  in  narrative,  with  a  readiness  to  nse  drawing 
rathci'  than  writing  as  a  means  of  expressing  ideas.  Small 
children  abstract  from  the  object  or  situatiim  only  those 
characteristic  features  \\hich  will  sei've  them  as  symbols. 
These  symbols  appear  to  be  satisfactory  to  the  children  if 
they  support  the  thought  of  the  stcjry. 


PK<)(iHKssi()X   riii{()r(;ii   riii:  chadhs 


19 


\t  first  cliildrt'ii  williiio'ly  use  drawing-  for  Lj'fiirral  ex- 
pression of  ideas.  Later,  wlieii  their  acciuaiiitaiiee  with 
written  huig'uage  becomes  better  (h'veloped,  (h'awiuL;'  is 
tised  more  speeitieally  foi"  sneh  di'sci'ipt ions  and  ilhisti'ations 
as  cannot  he  so  well  ex[)i'esse(l  hy  lan^na^e.  'I'hese  specitic 
uses  retjuire  differentiation  in  style.  Thus  the  drawiuL;'  mav 
l)e  for  dia^'rams.  for  detaile(l  I'ecord  of  facts  of  sti'Ucture,  for 
illustration  of  n-eiieral  characteristics,  for  pictorial  effet-ts, 
etc.,  as  the  purpose  in  hand  may  demand. 

In  (irades  I.  II,  and  III  there  appears  to  he  little  justiti- 
catiou  for  making'  nuu'h  differentiation  hetween  tiie  general 
and  the  sjjiitaui,  work.  Technical  deticieucics  and  lacl\<'rr 
knowlcdLi'e  ai'c  e\idi'nt.  hut  a  purpose  other  than  the  correc- 
tion of  these  is  more  important  duriui.;'  these  ycai's,  namelv, 
to  develo[)  a  r^-adiiu'ss  to  illustrate  ideas,  ho\\'e\'er  crudeh', 
and  a  hal)it  of  usiu;^'  drawing'  conuiioidy  as  a  lauLi'uai^'c.  At 
this  time  ohjects  placed  before  the  children  ser\'e  as  a 
means  of  sugu'est inn'  idi'as,  rather  than  as  h)rms  which  are 
to   l)e    cori'ectly    delineated. 

Toward  the  end  of  this  period  some  emphasis  may  protit- 
alilybc  laid  upon  a  moi'e  detailed  study,  by  fre(pienl  draw- 
ini;',  modeliuL;-.  observation  of  pictui'cs,  etc.,  of  a  \'v\v  ol»jects 
selecte(l  with  a  \iew  to  iiU'reasinn^  the  ^'laphic  Nocabulary  of 
tlie  children,  so  that  there  may  be  some  w fll-uudci'stood 
material  for  use  in  illustrati\'e  sketchiuL;'. 

( 'hildrcn  in  ( irade  1 1 1  appreciate  and  may  easily  be  taught 
to  use  the  simple  L4-eon'',-tric  relations  of  \cilical,  liori/.oiUal, 
and  parallel,  when  these  ai'c  in\'ol\'cd  in  di'awiuns  :  foi'  ex- 
ample, in  pictui-in^-  houses  as  standdii^-  xcil  ically.  etc. 

In  (ii'adcs  III,  I\',  and  \'  children  show  a  ddiiiitc  desire 
to  Iviiow  how  to  i-cprescnt  (jhjcri>  iiinfe  irutlifulK  and  to 
picture  different  effects:  as,  foi'  cxamplt',  of  thing's  lyiiii;'  tiat 


20  FINK  AND   IXDrsTlJIAL  AUTS 

or  placed  one  beyond  another.  They  ask  to  be  shown  liow 
to  prodnee  these  effects,  and  readily  learn  from  seeing- some 
one  else  represent  them,  and  from  pictnres.  They  gradnally 
become  able  to  interpret  effects  from  their  own  observations. 
Dnring  the  fonrth  and  lifth  years  it  ap})ears  to  ])e  of  especial 
importance  that  children  be  traine*!  to  jndge  gvneral  })ropor- 
tions  by  visnal  impressions,  as  to  whether  the  drawing  is 
too  long  or  too  short,  too  wide  or  too  narrow,  in  order  that 
they  may  represent  the  general  proportions  trnthfnlly  by 
the  judgment  of  the  eye  as  to  the  eff'ect  of  the  whole,  and 
not  by  devices  for  measuring.  In  addition  to  objects,  such 
arbitrary  forms  as  maps  and  diagrams  off'er  excellent  mate- 
rial for  some  formal  drill  in  relative  proportions. 

In  (irades  \I,  All,  and  VIII  the  f(dlowing  arc  promi- 
nent among  the  lines  of  definite  study  \\hicli  pi'ofitaljly 
sup}»lement  a  general  practical  nse  of  drawing: 

1.  Uepresentation  of  ol)jects  by  means  of  I'apid  sketches, 
made  as  simply  as  |)ossil)lc,  and  yet  showing  the  general 
characteristics,  proportions,  ami  position. 

2.  Careful  drawings  to  I'cpresent  details  of  form  and 
structure  with  some  degree  of  accuracy  and  to  convey 
correct  iid'ormation. 

3.  Re})rescntation  of  solid  objects  so  that  they  appear  to 
exist  in  three  dimensions  and  in  given  positions.  This  latter 
appears  to  be  accomplished  most  surely  and  rapidly  not 
by  a  study  of  formal  })erspective  but  by  supplementing  the 
drawing  from  actual  ol)jects,  with  nnich  experimentation 
in  building  uj)  solid  shapes  pictoi'ially,  c-hanging  their  form 
and  working  out  various  problems  of  structure  aiul  j)osi- 
tion  till  objects  based  on  the  ordinary  ty[)es  of  solidity  — 
iX'Ctangular,  cylindrical,  spherical,  etc.  —  can  be  sketched 
in  any  position,  added  to,  or  cut  into  any  desired  form,  from 


ruocJKKssiox   I'liKorfiii   riii-:  (;kai)i;s 


21 


iinao'imitioii.  Tliesi'  are  jjrobleins  which  can  he  huisIci'cmI 
only  hy  persistent  and  systematic  ap[)hcatit)n.  Without 
such  mastery  no  great  })raetieal  abihty  in  drawing-  can  he 
developed. 

4.  Siii'lii-ient  ae(]uaintanee  with  water  colors  to  use  them 
with  some  freedom,  U)  lay  Hat  washes,  and  to  match  the 
colors  of  nature. 

(''iHsfnictioH.  In  constructive  work  the  lirst  activities 
a[)pear  to  arise  from  a  desire  to  [)lay  with  constructive 
material/'Small  children  seem  to  ha\e  no  clearly  detiued 
ends  in  view,  hut  work'  chiefly  for  the  sake  of  havino-  a 
concrete  accompanimcni  lor  their  thought,  and  for  the 
[)leasure  of  Ix'ing  the  cause  of  changes  and  modifications 
in  materials.  From  this  stage,  progress  in  constructive  work 
should  he  along  the  line  of  devidoping  the  child's  ahility  to 
work  with  increasino-  manual  skill,  toward  (h'finite  ends, 
and  to  define  thosi'  ends  and  the  processes  necessary  for 
reaching  them,  hy  plans  whii-h  forecast  results  more  and 
more  com[)lctely. 

At  first  he  can  gain  some  familiarity  \\'ith  sim[)le  means 
of  [)redeterniiiung  results  accurately,  for  example,  hy  meas- 
urements and  patterns.  Later  can  he  develo[)ed  increasing 
ahilitv  to  perform  preliminaiy  thiid^ing  hy  means  of  plans, 
and  to  realize  these  plans  thi'ough  mastery  of  implements, 
processes,  aiul  materials.  I'ltimatelv  the  gi'owing  ahility  to 
deal  with  matt'i'ials  should  l)e  so  directed  as  to  awaken  a 
desire  to  produce  results  wliieh  contrihiUe  to  social  welfai'e. 

In  (iraih's  I  and  II  the  most  \alual)le  consti'Uct i\'e  work 
appeal's  to  consist  in  the  IVee  use  oi'  malei'ial  so  easily  ma- 
nipulated that  it  gi\'es  iiiiiiiediate  I'csuits  w  it  hout  (leman(h 
iiig  elahorate  tools  or  technical  skill.  Sand,  claw  hnilding 
l)locks,    etc.,    fulfill    the    important    function    of    furnishing 


•9-7 


FIXE   AM)    IXDl'STKIAL  ARTS 


niediuiiis  through  which  a  child's  coiistnictive  imao'iuation, 
which  at  this  agv  is  satislied  witli  results  which  serve  to 
suggest  the  original  ideas,  can  express  itself  in  concrete 
form.  .\t  tlie  same  time  childrt'n  gain  some  realization  of 
the  inert  (jualities  of  matter  and  of  the  necessity  of  effort 
to  shape  it  into  desire(l  form,  and  their  thinking  is  modi- 
fied thereby.  However,  such  mediums  as  are  here  suggested 
are  so  easily  handled  that  they  do  not  compel  the  imagina- 
tion to  wait  u[)on  the  slow  processes  by  which  more  stubborn 
material  is  shaped,  nor  to  have  its  own  creati\'e  ^•itality 
interfered  with  by  elaborate  [perfection  of  detail. 

The  (piestion  is  sometimes  raised  as  to  ^\•hethel•  the 
interest  of  the  children  will  be  inci'cased  and  the  things 
which  they  construct  A\ill  be  given  broader  signilicance 
and  become  a  means  of  wider  interpretation  of  the  activi- 
ties of  life,  if  they  are  given  all  materials  and  processes 
relating  to  the  idea  ■which  thev  are  working  out  :  for 
exani[)le,  if  children  in  the  lowest  grades  cook  the  food 
they  serve,  and  use  woodworking  tools  to  make  the  furni- 
ture of  the  doll  house,  etc.  One  who  watches  the  I'esults 
of  such  experiments  is  impressed  by  the  eager  interest  of 
the  children.  The  (|Uestion  ai'ises.  howe\'i'i-,  as  to  whether 
children  associate  these  di\"erse  processes  as  an  adult  does. 
For  instance,  if  a  child  in  (irade  I,  in  modeling  a  rivei-  on 
the  sand  taljle.  linds  ueeil  of  a  bridge,  he  may  be  gi\'en 
stri[)S  of  wood,  hammer,  and  luiils  with  which  to  construct 
a  bridge,  or  he  ma\'  simplv  lav  a  stri|)  of  wood  across, 
adding  building  l)l(/cks  if  he  wishes  a  moi'c  ornate  struc- 
ture. Observation  of  small  childi-en  under  these  circum- 
stances leads  to  the  intei'eiice  that  tlu'  use  of  saw  and 
hammer  and  nails  distracts  the  coiistructi\-e  imagination 
which  was  directing  tlie  molduig  of  the   ri\cr.    Again,   if 


IMUXiKKSSlON    TIIK()r(iII   TIIK   (iUADF.S 


cooking"  is  introdiu-ed  to  n'ive  more  nu'aiiino-  to  the  [)lav  of 
housekeeping,  it  is  a  (juestion  whether  at  this  age  an  oceii- 
pation  wliieh  must  he  (dosely  supervised  l)y  aihdts  (h)es 
not  dissociate  rather  than  aid  in  organizing  the  mental 
processes.  'I"o  the  adult  mind  these  activities  are  in  closely 
related  se([Uence.  To  the  child  it  is  prol)al)le  that  they  are 
kaleidoscopic  and  distracting.  The  material  hecomes  too 
detinitive  in  its  character  and  forces  him  to  think  along 
prescrihed  lines  in  a  tield  where  he  cannot  hi'  allowed  free 
scope  to  cxpei'iment  hy  himsidf  outside  of  school  hours  in 
a  way  tliat  is  at  all  hel[)ful  socially.  The  child  who  makes 
believe  can  serve  any  food  he  chooses.  The  imagination 
recei\es  hints  and   intimations  and   follows  their  lead. 

If  the  a[)[)ropriate  time  educationally  for  introducing 
given  activities  may  be  judged  b}'  their  social  helpfulness, 
they  are  a[)})ropriate  when  the  tise  of  the  knowledge  gained 
would  be  at  all  helpful  in  a  household  where  each  mem- 
l)er  was  given  a  share  in  the  home  activities  at  as  early  a 
date  as  he  could  conti'ibute  hel[)fully,  or  when  it  can  be 
ttsed  in  play  which  does  not  re(piire  close  supervision.  I'his 
relation  to  the  social  scheme  appears  to  offer  a  reasonable 
criterion  for  determining  the  place  of  most  mainial  aclixities 
in  schools. 

In  later  years,  when  the  mind  demands  for  its  satisfac- 
tion that  the  product  of  its  activity  attain  some  degree  of 
perfection  and  sei've  an  objective  purpose,  sti'uggle  witli 
the  difliculties  of  tools  and  pi'occsscs  necessary  to  sha[)e 
wood  and  metal  into  pi'edetermincd  foi'ui  bt'coines  a  factor 
in  develo])ing  intelligent  consideration  of  conditions  and 
encouraging  persistinit  effort  with  coiihdeiicc  in  the  out- 
come. On  the  other  hand,  at  tiiat  caiiy  age  when  the  mind 
is  l)usied  chiell\-  with  its  own   acti\ities  and  investigations. 


24  FIXE   AND   INDUS  11! lAL  A1!TS 

and  wlien  it  can  reg'ard  materials  as  invested  with  (jnalities 
largely  of  its  own  creation,  so  that  thev  ser\e  })ert'ectly  well 
to  snp[)ort  and  stimulate  the  current  of  thought  even  when 
they  end)ody  none  of  its  terms,  as  when  chairs  serve  as  a 
train  of  cars,  elaborate  processes  and  paraphernalia  appear 
to  interrupt  what  continuity  such  thinking  might  develo[) 
and  rol)  it  of  muchof  its  vitality.  Too  earl^  access  to. 
abundant  [)araphernalia  limits  the  scope  of  imagination  and 
lessens  ability  to  receive  satisfactoi'v  pleasure  from  moder- 
ate stimulation.  To  a  degree,  limitation  of  material  ap[)ears 
to  increase  the  activity  of  the  imagination. 

In  (irades  III.  \\\  and  \'  children  show  a  desire  to  be 
able  so  to  handle  material  that  it  shall  not  oidy  furnish  a 
concrete  accompaniment  to  the  activities  of  their  thought, 
but  shall  be  itself  shaped  to  e.\})ress  that  thought  with  in- 
creasing completeness.  This  appears  to  be  tlx'  appropriate 
time  for  l)eginning  a  defmite  study  of  technical  [)rocesses 
and  of  the  use  of  sim[)le  instruments  of  precision,  such  as 
the  rule  and  later  the  com[)ass.  to  shape  material  accord- 
ing to  a  predetermined  form.  Udiis  stage  is  signiticant  in 
that  it  marks  the  first  ste[)s  toward  ielin(iuishment  of  the 
primiti\e  method  of  ari'iving  at  results  l)y  mere  experimen- 
tal haiulling  of  matt'rial,  and  tlu'  beginning  of  masterv  of 
matter  by  mathematics  and  in  terms  of  patterns  and  plans 
which  constitute  a  language  of  construction. 

tirades  \'I.  ^'II,  and  \'III  ap})ear  to  be  the  most  a})pro- 
priate  period  for  undertaking  jtrojects  involving  more 
complicated  pi'ocesses  with  tools  and  materials,  which  re- 
quire s(mie  maturity  of  judgment  and  satisfy  the  desire 
which  generally  api)ears  at  this  age  to  undei'take  some- 
thing evidently  related  to  the  industrial  activities  of  the 
home  and  the  connnunity.    Among  the  projects  sn.iiabK'  to 


riKXiKEssiox  TiiRoriJii  TiiK  (;i!Ai)i:s  25 

this  age  arc  those  necessitatint;'  constnietion  in  wood  and 
the  handhno-  of  materials  ust'd  in  doniestie  science  and 
domestic  art.  All  tliesi-  demand  carct'iil  plannino-  and  the 
exercise  of  skill  and  g-ood  taste  ac({uired  nntU'r  careful 
instruction. 

These  materials,  because  of  their  miture,  make  it  neces- 
sary that  a  large  part  of  the  [)reliminary  plamung  and 
ex[)erimentation  be  done  in  terms  of  skett-hes  and  patterns 
and  other  forms  of  description.  ( )ne  of  the  important  atti- 
tudes toward  work  which  these  undertakings  should 
(U'velo[)  in  the  minds  of  tlu'  children  is  that  it  is  possible 
and  wholly  desirable  that  processes  and  results  shall  be 
pretty  detiiutely  considered  and  determined  in  gi'a[)hic  or 
verbal  terms  before  any  direct  attack  is  made  U[)on  difiicult 
or  yaluable  material. 

I)i'xl<in.  The  progression  along  the  liiu'  of  a'sthetic  ap- 
preciation to  be  gained  from  the  study  of  design  ap[)eai's 
to  haye  the  following  general  tendency:  namely,  from 
juyenile  [)leasure  in  obyious  repetitions  of  conunon[)lace 
relations  of  mt-asures,  to  a  response  to  the  beauly  of  con- 
sistent but  sul)tle  interrelations  of  liiu'  proportions  and  of 
beautiful  outliiu's  ;  and  fi'om  the  tcmporai'y  stimulation  of 
the  senses  by  gaudy  eui'ichmcut  and  b\-  mere  collections 
of  material  I'cgardless  of  any  worthy  j)riiiciplcs  of  selection, 
to  a  i-es[)onse  to  the  appeal  of  things  which  are  excellent 
and  which  gi\('  lasting  satisfaction. 

Twn  aspc<-ts  of  design  become  e\ident  in  an\'  detailed 
stud\'  of  the  sul^ject  —  the  element  of  iililil\  and  that  nf 
formal   beauty. 

W'iien  one  attcinpts  to  design  a  wall  paper  oi'  hook  coxcr 
oi'  utensil,  there  are  conditions  to  he  ohsei'\ed  peculiar  to 
each  subject.      The   wall  pa[»er  should   ha\c  the  (pialities  of 


26 


FIXK   AXJ)    IXDrsriJIAJ.   ARTS 


a  backn'i'ound.  and  its  pattcni  should  l)c  adapted  to  a  flat, 
vertical  sui-tiU'c  :  tlit-  l)ooi<;  coxci'  should  display  its  title 
eleai'lv,  and  its  color  and  ornamentation  should  he  in  har- 
inon\-  with  its  content  :  the  titensil  must  })ossess  the  prac- 
tical (dements  which  make  it  ser\'e  its  pui'pose.  IJroadlv 
speakiuL;'.  an\thinn'  ^\  liich  is  to  serve  a  })urpose  is  not  <^'oo(l 
in  desi^'n  unless  it  is  well  fitted  in  every  possible  wav  to 
sei've  that  purpose,  and  any  ornament  which  ohseures  or 
hinders  that  puipose  is  in  had  taste,  liowever  perfect  it  ma\' 
he  technically.  The  \alues  of  litness  to  ])urj)ose  and  of 
structural  integrity  ai'e  ohvious  from  the  point  of  view  of 
tUilitw  hut  they  nnist  also  i'e(H'i\e  consideration  from  the 
;esthetic  standpoint.  The  satisfaction  A\hich  arises  from 
contemplating  a  well-constructed  object  which  perfectly 
ftiltills   its   p\irj)ose   is   lai-gtdy   an   a-sthelic   one. 

'J"he  Aiilue  oi  utilitarian  considerations  is  readily  [)ei'- 
ceived.  On  the  other  hand,  the  student  of  design  is  soon 
made  aware  that  in  dealing  with  coiistructe(l  ohjects. 
Iiuman  demands  other  than  those  of  utility  hecome  innne- 
diat(d\' evident.  lie  Hnds  inherent  in  iiuman  nature  certain 
(demeiUal  prim-iples  of  choice  in  matters  of  foi'm  and  coloi> 
whicli  appear  to  he  hase(l  on  consistencies  of  projiort  ional 
i'(dations  in  ai'cas.  cur\'atui'es.  or  tones,  'hhesr  (h^mands 
seem  to  appear  as  earh'  in  human  history  and  to  he  as 
insistent    as   those   of   utility. 

'i'he  wall  paper  ma\'  he  perfectly  snili  d  in  coloi'  and 
pattern  to  its  position  as  a  \"ertical  hackgroun<l.  hut  tlie 
interrelation  of  thost-  coloi's  and  the  hnai  (list  lihut  ion  of 
pattern  are  matters  of  a'sthetic  pi'eference  ratlier  than  of 
utilitarian  necessity.  The  title  may  he  e(pnilly  plain  in 
anv  (»iie  of  a  nuni1)er  of  positions  on  the  coNcr.  hut  e(|ually 
])leasing    in    oidv   a    few.     It    is  usually   possible   to    modify 


PKOGREssiox  Tinu)r(;ii  tiik  (jkades  -il 

the  proportions  and  outlines  of  the  utensil  or  of  any  other 
eonstrueted  ohjeet  so  that  a  slig-hi  variation  of  the  rela- 
tions, or  a  niodifieation  of  structural  elements,  makes  of 
its  desio-u  a  harmonious  and  satisfying  whole  instead  of  a 
eonnnonplaee  eolleetion  of  parts. 

These  illustrations  suggest  two  lines  of  [)roeedure  in  a 
course  in  desio-n.  The  first  is  largely  one  of  training  the 
pupil  to  reason  out  the  most  ade(}uate  fullillment  of  con- 
ditions: the  second  is  to  develop  his  (demental  u'sthetic 
preferences,  relining  them  by  exercise  and  by  the  influence 
of  excellent  examples  till  they  become  defiinte  and  discrim- 
inating in  their  choices,  and  intelligent  regarding  the  possible 
sources  of  satisfaction.  These  two  lines  are  evident  in  all 
stages  of  progress,  with  the  mininuim  of  emphasis  at  the 
beginning  upon  that  requiring  judgment  of  conditions. 

Throughout  the  grades  the  instructor  should  see  that 
there  is  continual  exei'cise  of  taste  in  matters  of  school  and 
home  work  and  general  surroundings.  The  special  time 
devoted  to  design  should  aim  at  a  development  which  will 
tend  ultimately  to  correct  whatever  bad  taste  is  noticeable 
in  actual  choices  \\hicli  the  children  make.  The  problem 
is  necessai'ily  slow  of  accomplishment,  for  it  consists  in 
producing  changes  of  mental  attitu(h's,  not  in  obedience  to 
statements  of  oj)inion  by  the  teacher,  but  as  a  result  of 
the  development  of  right  choices  on  grounds  of  geiniine 
pHiference.  yT.sthetic  appreciation  is  a  slowly  aciiuired 
type  (jf  mental  behavior.  The  outcome.  howe\ cr,  is  not 
a  matter  of  theoi-y,  for  actual  ex[)erience  has  shown  that 
where  the  insti'uctor  undei'stands  the  coudilioiis,  the  begin- 
nings of  good  taste  in  matters  of  design  and  of  apj)recia- 
tion  of  beaut  il'ul  tilings  may  \>it  \'cry  delinitely  de\'elope(l  in 
elementarv  schools. 


28  FIXE  AND  TXDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

In  Grades  I.  II,  and  III  cliildren  have  a  feeling  for 
rliytlnnic  arraug-enient  in  repeating  single  forms  indeiinitely, 
as  in  borders  and  surfaee  patterns,  and  show  eonsiderahle 
ingennity  in  making  new  eonibinations  of  given  elements. 
During  the  latter  part  of  this  period,  and  especially  in 
(irades  IV  and  \\  some  appreciation  of  moi'e  complicated 
relations  of  spaces  than  those  inAolved  in  mere  re})etition 
is  evident;  for  exam[)le,  the  })leasing  arrangement  of  eU'- 
ments  within  a  given  area,  such  as  the  [)lacin.g  of  a  title, 
decoration,  and  monogram  in  consistent  relations  on  the 
same  i>age,  or  in  the  choosing  of  border  spaces.  This  last 
problem  invohcs  such  designs  as  stripes  in  weaving,  mar- 
gins in  written  or  [)rinte(l  pages,  widths  of  frames  or  mats 
for  [)ictures,  etc.  It  offers  opportunity  for  endless  invention 
in  relathig  single  and  multiple  sti'ipes  of  varying  widths 
and  S[)acings,  and  in  introducing  modilicatious.  accents,  and 
interlachigs  at  corners  and  elsewhere.  It  |)rescnts  principles 
wdiich  may  be  develoi)ed  and  applied  indefinitely. 

Children  in  these  grades  also  ap|)reciate  the  various 
effects  of  1)ilateral  svunnetry,  ^\•hi(■h  owe  their  interest  to 
the  du})lication  of  given  elements  in  I'cversc  foi'ui. 

In  (ii'ades  \'I,  \'II,  and  \'II1  the  sco})e  for  general 
exercise  of  taste  is  much  greater  than  in  the  grades  which 
pi'tM'cde,  and  includes,  in  addition  to  general  school  work, 
constructive  pi'ol)lems.  the  iields  of  the  doniestic  arts  and 
social  and  iiuhisii-ial  community  interests.  iJeeause  ot'  the 
increased  maturity  oi'  the  children  and  the  pre\ioiis  prac- 
tice, a  far  more  deiinite  a})peal  can  ap})roj)riatelv  l)e  made 
t()  indi\idual  judgment  in  matters  of  design  which  (h-mand 
consideration  of  purpose  and  s[)ecilic  conditions,  and  also 
in  those  which  involve  the  more  formal  problems  of  Hue 
sj)acing  and   beautiful   outline. 


riuxatEssiox  tiikoich  the  (;kai)i:s  29 

Appreciation  seems  to  be  better  developed  and  originality 
enabled  the  sooner  to  exercise  itself  if  children  are  ac- 
qnainted  with  good  ty[)es  from  the  tirst.  These  types  are 
the  result  of  long  experimentation  by  skilled  designers. 
In  actual  [)ractice  the  greatest  stimulus  to  originality 
appears  to  be  ju'esent  not  when  a  mhid  is  left  to  work 
alone  but  when  it  is  brought  into  contact  with  the  best 
which  other  minds  have  produced. 

With  the  advancing  maturity  of  pupils  increasing  atten- 
tion should  be  paid  to  chooshig  the  best  things  from 
availal)le  sources,  which  usually  present  both  good  and  bad 
exam[)les.  Even  though  one  may  have  designed  a  good  vase 
or  wall  paper,  certain  different  kinds  of  mental  Ijehavior 
are  called  forth  when  instead  of  beginning  with  raw  ma- 
terials he  nuist  choose  from  a  multitude  of  linished  })rod- 
ucts.  In  the  tirst  case  there  is  a  slow  working  toward 
the  realization  of  an  idea  with  materials  which  are  under 
one's  control.  In  the  second  there  is  more  or  less  rapid 
choice  among  different  ideas  as  expressed  by  others,  and 
definite  comparison  of  these  with  one's  own  ideals.  Original 
designing  is  an  excellent  experience  and  should  certainly 
form  part  of  the  training  of  every  pupil,  but  it  is  only  one 
of  the  factors  which  go  to  form  good  taste.  Thoughtful 
selection  from  available  material  and  familiai'itv  ^\•ith  ex- 
cellent exam[)les  are  also  effective  intlueiU'cs.  In  actual 
life,  for  e\cry  designer  there  are  a  thousand  people  who 
will   oidy  select  designs. 

Ciil'ir.  The  sludv  of  color  is  associated  willi  both  repre- 
sentation and  design,  and  tlie  [)rogress  in  color  Avork 
through  the  gi'ades  is  closelv  iclate(l  to  the  progress  in 
these  two  lilies  of  worlc  A  cliilds  tirst  use  of  color  aj)pears 
to    1).'    somewhat    arhiti'ary.     lie    is    interested    in    making 


30  FIXE  AND   IXDUSTUIAL  AKTS 

patches  of  differt'iit  tdues  forth*'  pui-posc  of  making  sliai)es 
more  distim-t,  and  for  the  sake  of  tlie  resulting  color  sen- 
sations. Tlu'  ultimate  aims  held  in  view  hy  the  instructor 
are  generally  the  ability  to  use  color  truthfully  when  em- 
ployed in  scientiiic  and  other  infoi'mational  diawing,  to  use 
it  with  good  taste  in  matters  relating  to  the  arts,  and  to 
appreciate  good  color  effects  in  nature  and  in  art.  Coloi' 
appreciation  develops  rapidly  under  A\ise  direction  in  choos- 
ing and  combining  tones  and  in  actual  manipulation  of  })ig- 
ments.  Progress  is  usually  from  general  consciousness  of 
color  sensations,  pleasurable  or  otherwise,  to  keen  dis- 
crimination of  tine  color  (jualilies,  as,  for  example,  when 
certain  tones  of  a  color  give  greater  satisfaction  than  othei' 
tones  of  the  same  color,  \\hich  would  not  have  ap[)ealed 
as  essentially  different  if  no  special  study  had  been  given 
them;  to  pleasure  in  harmoniously  ndated  tones  and  ability 
to  harmonize  given  colors:  and  also  to  the  cnjoymenl  of 
beautiful  color  effects  in  nature  and  art.  not  simply  in  the 
first  impressions  of  strong  coloring,  as  in  bi'illiant  sunsets  or 
autumn  hues,  but  in  those  (jualitics  which  constitute  beauty 
of  color,  whether. the  tones  are  intense  or  subduecl. 

In  (irades  I.  II,  and  III  the  children  I'eadily  gain  ac- 
(puiintance  with  the  more  prominent  color  tones,  as  red, 
orange,  yellow,  green,  blue,  and  \  iolet.  'i'licy  are  inlereste(l 
in  collecting  samples  or  in  separating  into  color  groups 
samples  ah'cady  gathei'cd.  they  learn  to  compare  samples 
so  as  to  match  colors  as  nearly  as  possible,  and  later  can 
sort  out  material  with  considerable  discrimination:  for 
exam})le.  in  [)lacing  two  gi\('n  colors,  as  yellow  and  green 
or  green  and  blue,  at  a  little  distance  apart  and  arranging 
samples  so  as  to  form  a  graded  series  of  intermediate  tones 
between  the  two,  or  in  making  series  of  lighter  and  darker 


ri:<)(;i:Kssi()x   riiitorcii   iiii:  (.kadf.s 


81 


tones  of  single  colors  by  means  of  s;un[)k's.  A  liniitc'(l  use 
of  color  in  (Irawiny-  is  also  of  \alue. 

In  (iratU's  I\'.  \'.  and  \'I  one  of  the  most  ^■alual)le 
factors  in  (lcvelo[)in^'  kno\\"U'(lnc  and  a[)pi'eciation  of  color 
is  the  use  of  water  colors  in  rcprt'sentation,  with  special 
practice  in  carefullv  matching  differi'iit  colors  of  ohjects. 
Experimentation  with  pigments,  in  producing  tones  of 
colors  that  shall  diifer  from  given  colors  in  heing  nioi'e  or 
less  intense  or  in  heing  lighter  and  darker,  or  in  forming 
a  series  between  one  color  and  another,  as  was  suggested 
with  sam[ik's,  also  develops  discrimination. 

In  (irades  ^' 1 1  and  \'I1I  the  nse  of  color  in  description 
and  truthful  re[)resentation  is  increasingly  \aluable.  The 
children  are  readily  interested  in  learning  something  of  suit- 
al)le  and  harmonious  relations  of  colors  as  used  in  industries 
and  in  home  surroundings.  They  should  be  hel[)e(l  in 
making  collections  of  good  exam[)les  of  color  in  textiles, 
color  prints  such  as  occur  in  magazines,  miscellaneous  color 
designs,  cXr.  They  should  be  interested  in  the  color  effects 
in  nature,  in  lan(lsca[)e  and  in  plant  and  ainmal  forms,  and 
should  be  given  some  [)ractice  in  making  good  color  com- 
l)inations  for  use.  At  this  age  elaborate  verbal  discussions 
of  color  theories  seem  to  be  of  little  \alue  to  the  children. 


CHAPTER  111 
(;i{Ai)i-:  I 

'i'lic  most  valuable  outconu'  of  llic  ^^■ork  of  the  lirst  Near 
in  school  appears  to  be  the  formation  of  a  liabit  of  draw- 
ing things  uppermost  in  the  interests  of  the  children,  and 
of  shai)ing  easily  handled  material  till  manual  expression 
becomes  a  matter  of  course. 

This  is  accomplished  most  satisfactorily  when  there  is 
little  criticism  of  results  and  when  technical  instruction 
is  only  incidental.  The  greatest  progress  a[)[)ears  to  come 
wlien  the  instructor  works  at  times  with  and  for  the  chil- 
dren, in  order  that  they  may  see  l)etter  ways  of  obtaining 
results. 

The  function  of  manual  woi'k  at  this  time  is  to  furiush 
the  children  with  a  means  of  expressing  their  constructive 
and  imitative  tendencit'S  in  c()ncrete  form.  When  children 
shape  clay  or  mold  sand  or  draw,  tliey  lind  their  i<U'as  are 
assuming  visil)le  shape.  This  discovery  stimulates  still 
further  the  mental  imagery  and  the  desire  to  ex[)ress  it. 
Little  technical  skill  is  ac(iuired,  l)ut  a  coi)rdinatioii  is 
developed  between  ideas  and  nuisculai'  reactions  and  the 
children  become  aware  of  certain  inhei'cnt  (jnalities  and 
laws  of  inert  material. 

The  following  paragra[)hs  pi'esenl  more  d(;laile(l  consid- 
erations regarding  those  phases  of  i-e[)reseutalion.  construc- 
tion, and  design  which  seem  to  be  of  greatest  value  (hiring 
the  lirst  year  in  school. 

32 


{;uAi)K  I  33 

Represe)ttation.  This  should  consist  in  o-cneral  pictorial 
expression  of  things  of  interest  to  the  children,  with  much 
encotiragenient  and  little  criticism  from  the  teacher.  Their 
other  lessons,  their  toys  and  g-ames,  incidents  of  their  (expe- 
rience.—  in  fact,  all  tiiose  things  which  are  most  vividly  in 
mind  and  which  form  the  topics  of  their  conversation.  —  are 
a[)pr()priate  subjects  for  drawing.  Their  jtictorial  expression 
is  so  symbolic  and  arbitrary  in  its  shorthand  conventions 
that  it  lends  itself  to  free,  rapid  ex[)ression  as  later  and 
more  elal)orated  drawing  eamiot. 

The  first  interest  children  show  in  using  a  pencil  seems 
to  be  awakened  by  the  pleasure  of  making  marks  \\\\\\  it, 
regardless  of  any  signiticance  in  the  marks  themstdves. 
Thev  will  cover  one  sheet  of  paper  aftt'r  another  with 
mt-aningless  scrawls  and  be  delighted  ap[)arently  by  the 
fact  that  movements  of  the  j)encil  over  the  [)aper  leave 
visible  marks  in  their  path.  'I'his  pei'iod  has  bi-en  termed 
the  "  scril)ble  stage." 

IJy  degi'ces  the  marks  take  on  signihcance.  Interest  in 
representing  things  is  added  to  tlu'  interest  in  mere  sci'ib- 
bling.  When  children  enter  school  they  are  usually  just 
emerfjino-  from  the  scribblino-  stasj'e  and  are  beu'inninu'  the 
use  of  forms,  somewhat  as  hieroglyphics  in  a  sort  of  [)icture 
writing.  Fig.  2  shows  early  interpretations  of  the  human 
ligure.  a  house,  a  tree,  and  an  animal. 

At  this  time  children  show  little  interest  in  I'epresenting 
accurately  a  pailicular  object  placed  befoi'c  them.  Passy 
thus  describes  the  altitude  of  a  jirimary  child  toward  a 
model  given  him  to  draw  : 

III"  (Idcs  not  licsitati'.  Imt  sci/.cs  his  |iciiril  and  ilraws  i-apidly  in  an 
uiit(jniatie  manner.  It  is  ini]iii-sililc  td  maki-  liini  in(]l<  at  tliis  nicHlcj 
with   anv  attention.    Ii'  an\    one  (dininand;^  iiiin   to   look   atj   it,   he 


34 


FINK  AND   IXDl'sriMAL  ARTS 


Imrriedly  casts  upon  it  a  (listractcd  and  disdainful  glance  and  con- 
tinues without  concerning'  himself  with  that  whicli  he  sees.  Tlie 
moment  he  has  finished  he  shows  it  to  you  with  a  triunqihaiit  air.^ 


¥ii,.  2.    Karly  drawings  l.)y  cliildreu 

Duriiio-  tills  period  Avheu  the  cliildreu  ai'c  interested  in 
re})reseiitiiig  l)y  crude  picloo-raplis  the  ideas  which  thiiio's 
suggest,  rather  than  the  correct  a[)p(!arance  of  the  things 
themselves,  almost  any  result  satisdes  them.    The  draw  ing, 

1  Quoted  Ity  Freilerick  I5urk  in  "  Tlie  (ieuetie  vs.  tlie  Logical  ( )rder  in 
Drawing,"  I'edagoykul  IStmlnary  (1!»02),  p.  21M». 


(HLVDK    I 


35 


altlioiig'li  il  may  bo  ineaniiij^'k'.ss  to  others,  is  for  the  child 
who  nnuU'  it  a  sutlicifiit  suo-ovstion  of  the  i<h'a  that  inspired 
it.    He  has  a  reason  for  e\ery  mark. 

These  symbols  once  nsed  are  likely  to  be  re[)eated  un- 
niodilied  by  reference  to  the  object.  For  example,  Fi^'.  o 
shows  symbols  which  different  children  dre\\'  to  represent 


¥i(..  ;■].    Symbols  used  by  diiferL-iit  cliildrt'ii  to  rcpi-t'scut  tlu'  liitiiiaii  fii^urc 

the  linman  lig-nre.  In  each  the  pai'ticnlar  sort  of  lini-  chosen 

])y   each   child   to  ri'presenl    arms  and   lejgs   is   re})eate(l   in 

all  the  hgui'cs  bv  that  child,    'i'he  same  recnrreiice  of  the 

symbol   lirsl   nsed  is  to  be  seen   in  drawinL^'s  of  most  other 

objects,    as    trees,  lionses,    etc.     'Idicse    s\inl)ols    aic    (d'ten 

strikinglN'   similar  to  those    wsvd    by   ancient   and   primitive 
peoples   whose   drawings   ari-   highly   conventicjiudizecl. 


36 


FIXE  AND   IXDCSTKIAL  ARTS 


Young  cliildren  drnw  wluit  tlicv  know  al)oiit  the  oljjects, 
rather  tlian  what  thi'ir  eyes  see  at  any  given  moment.  For 
example,  they  will  show  botli  ends  of  a  house  in  the  same 
(h'awing,  and  will  sketch  not  oidy  the  exterior,  but.  if 
allowed  time,  will  add  the  furinture  and  people  inside,  as 
if  the  walls  were  transparent  (  Fig.  4).  The  attitude  of  mind 
which  leads  the  children  to  do  this  is  not  a  fault  to  be  oxer- 
come  l)y  insti'uction,  but  a  stage  lo  be  li\-ed  through  and 


Fi(..  4.    ('liil(lii-ii"s  attfinjits  \n  show  what   tln'v  kimw  ratln-r  than  what 
thfv  can  si-c  at  tlie  tiiiiL'  the  drawiim-  is  hukU' 


one  which  eontri])utes  directly  to  further  dexflopmcnt.  'Hie 
fact  that  children  often  make  little  progress  at  lirst  towai-d 
what  adults  consider  to  be  good  drawing,  and  that  tliev 
fre(piently  revert  to  scribl)]ing.  should  not  be  a  cause  for 
discouragement  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  in  these  grades. 
Aftt'r  children  liave  obtained  a  little  familiarity  with  the 
pencil  their  drawings  frecpiently  become  sui'pi'isingly  e\- 
pi'essive  of  character,  as.  for  example,  the  group  of  sketches 
shown  in  Fiii'.  ■>. 


(IKADH    I 


37 


IiU'icU'iitally.  with  this  ^'ciicral  use  of  ilhistratiN  r  (h'aw  iiiii^ 
a  (k'liniti'  ht'!4'iiniiiio'  may  he  iiKuU'  in  (levc'l()[)iiiL;'  al)iHt\-  to 
draw  more  Initht'ully  hy  (IcN'otiiiu'  a  iiuinlH'i-  of  It'ssoiis  to 
the  sauu'  siibji'ct.  with  new  su^-o-cst  ions  rc^'anliii^'  it  at  each 
lesson.  For  example,  in  I^'io'.  (>  the  child  who  has  made 
ernde  re[)rt'sentations  of  houses,  as  in  A,  tries  in  another 
lesson  to  draw  a  house  and  fence  which  shall  stand  uni'iL'ht, 


-_i"n 


Fii..  5.    ]lliistrati\(_'  skutclics  by  cliildrcn 

with  the  result  shown  in  /.' :  and  later  draws  C  and  />, 
which,  while  fai-  from  perfect,  indicate  a  distinct  advance 
in  ability  to  re[)i-esent  structui'c.  V'v^.  7  shows  sketclu's 
iii\dl\inL;'   a   snow    sIioncI. 

The  results  of  careful  and  I'cpeatcd  study  of  a  few 
topics  will  l)e  discussed  in  fullci'  detail  in  ( 'haplei'  11, 
]».  411.  In  n'eneial,  liowe\cr.  it  nia\  lie  sai<l  that  al)ilil\  to 
recoi'd  ol)ser\at  ions  coi-rcct  l\  can  he  dc\'elope<l  when  the 
childi-cii  ;ii'c  oldci',  with  much  less  cxpcnditui'c  of  time  and 


\ 


It 


'i  0  'i  /--         ^^  '^• 


i4H+tH 


t;t 


■f^xfjz,!^ 


ll4•J.i^' 


Fid.  0.    SkctcliL's  shuwiiiic  cliildrcirs  ijvonrcss  in  drawiiin-  houses 


V 


Fi<^  7.    Sketches  iiivdhiiiu-  ;i  study  of  the  shape  of  a  simu  sh 


8H 


(JRADE  I  39 

effort :  but  facility  of  g-rapliic  expression  comes  most  readily 
(luring-  these  early  years  and  is  diriicull  to  oljtaiii  later. 
During"  the  tirst  year  or  two  of  school  life,  the  technical 
acciuisition  in  drawing  which  is  of  greatest  advantage  to  the 
next  stage  of  the  work  is  this  facility  which  a  child  gains 
by  drawing  in  his  own  way,  with  the  aid  of  encouragement 
and  good  example.  He  needs  continual  use  of  this  primitive 
})icture  language  in  describing  things  associated  with  home, 
out-of-door,  and  school  life.  Thus  the  children  l)ecome  ac- 
customed to  express  their  ideas  l)y  drawing  before  the  age 
of  self-consciousness  and  hesitation  is  reached. 

Perha[)s  the  best  sei'vice  a  teacher  of  drawing  can  render 
in  (irade  I  is  to  di'aw  a  great  deal  for  the  children  on  the 
board  or  elsewhei'c,  not  for  the  sake  of  setting  them  a  cojn', 
but  of  furnislnng  to  them  the  uneipnded  stinuilus  of  seeing 
some  one  do  easily  and  well  what  thev  are  attempting. 
Elaborate  systems  and  courses  can  accom[)lish  little  without 
the  encouragement  and  suggestions  of  exam[)U\  Instruction 
in  the  language  of  di'awing.  as  in  the  (ierman  or  French 
language,  should  make  use  of  the  conversational  method. 
At  tins  age  tlie  tendency  to  imitate  is  an  important  factor 
in  development  in  all  lines,  including  the  ails.  In  fact,  the 
matter  of  drawing  in  early  grade's  might  alm(»st  be  sununed 
up  as  f(jllows:  Children  who  arc  with  an  instructoi-  who 
draws  well  and  uses  his  drawing  as  a  common  means  of 
expression  will  learn  to  draw.  Anv  otluT  circuiiislances 
are  less  promising. 

('(iHsti-Kcfinn.  'l"he  value  of  constructi\c  work  in  this 
gi'ade  consists  mainly  in  the  fact  iiiat  it  I'urnishcs  another 
medium  for  expi'cssing  ideas  in  \isil)je  fonu.  As  in  drawing, 
the  material  serves  to  snpport  and  retlect  the  train  of  ideas, 
and  this  nu-ntal  acti\il\'  is  in  ureat  dan''-er  of  beinu' checked 


40  FIXE   AND   IXDlS'irvIAI.   AKl'S 

if  any  emphasis  is  placed  at  lirst  upon  technical  accuracy 
in  processes.  The  problems  therefore  should  not  entail 
complicated  i)lanning  nor  [jrolons^'cd  [)rocesses,  and  the 
material  should  not  be  too  deiiniti\-e,  but  be  adapted  to 
general  ex[)ressi(»n  and  invite  the  childi'en  to  endless  ampli- 
fication of  their  ideas.  'J'he  construction  in  this  grade  might 
be  terme(l  free  re})resentation  in  three  dimensions. 

'Idle  sand  tal)le  offers  a  wide,  range  of  possibilities  for 
such  \\()rk.  The  sand  is  readily  shaped  to  rej)iesent  \arious 
conligui'ations  of  land,  and  on  these,  with  su[)plementarv 
material,  different  localities  may  be  represented  and  scenes 
enacted. 

Modeling  in  clav  or  other  plastic  material  is  a  means 
of  expression  which  awakens  strong  and  long-sustained  in- 
terest. In  using  sand  or  clay  both  hands  are  re(]uire(l  to 
shape  the  res[»oiisive  material  into  the  desii'cd  form,  and 
every  touch  makes  an  evident  modilication.  Modeling  has 
not  been  so  universally  adopted  as  its  \alue  would  seem 
to  justify,  largely  on  account  of  the  difliculty  in  caring  for 
the  materials.  It  is,  howevei',  one  of  the  important  modes 
of  manual  expression  in  primai-y  giades. 

Cutting  given  pictures  and  othei-  shapes  from  ])aper 
gives  valuable  training  in  gaining  coiurol  over  a  tool  as  a 
means  of  sha[)ing  material  to  a  pi'eclctcrmiiied  form,  and 
is  an  important  form  of  manual  woi'k  in  primaiy  gi'ades. 
Practice  in  paper  cutting  of  gi\'en  forms  results  in  marked 
progress  in  ability  to  control  the  hand  so  as  to  follow  an 
outline.  In  addition  to  the  technical  control,  childi'en  gain 
new  suggestions  of  form  from  the  [)ictures  they  cut  out. 
and  these  are  likely  to  a^Jix-ar  in  later  drawings,  j-'reediand 
})a[)er  cutting  is  also  of  great  use  as  a  means  of  interpreting 
objects  ill  terms  of  silhouette  (Fig.  S  ). 


GIJADK    I 


41 


Arc'uracy  in  nioasiiivinent  should  not  l)e  ex[HH'te(l  from 
small  children,  hut  first  steps  in  handlino-  a  rule  may  he 
taken   hv  nsino-  it  as  a  means  of   drawing   straight    lines 


I-'k..  b.    Frcc-liaml  paper  ciitliiii: 

hetween  given  points.  Toward  the  end  of  tiif  year  some 
simple  measui'cments  which  do  not  in\-o]\c  fi-actions  of 
inches    nia\    l)e    undei'takeii    wilii    prolit. 

liuilding    with    hlocks    is    a    type  of    consti'uct  i\-e    work 
which    is   of   imporlancc    for  small    cliildrcn.     liy    matching 


42  FINK  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

the  blocks  tog-ether  and  selecting  those  ^\•hich  tit  they  learn 
to  estimate  ionn  with  some  degree  of  precision.  Wy  placing 
one  block  upon  another  so  that  the  structure  stands  lirndy 
they  gain  a  sense  of  horizontal  and  vertical  relations. 

Objects  so  shaped  as  to  offer  hints  to  the  imagination 
without  embodying  more  than  a  suggestion  oftt'U  in^'ite 
mental  activity  \\hen  more  detinitely  elaborated  forms  fail. 
For  example,  children  who  have  learned  the  names  of  chess- 
men will  often  carry  on  lengthy  plays  full  of  incident  and 
dialogue,  using  the  pieces  as  actors.  The  children  appear  to 
clothe  the  king  and  queen  witli  more  personality  than  would 
be  the  case  if  the  pieces  were  realistic  in  ai)pearance  :  and 
the  knights  seem  to  awaken  greater  intei'est  than  a  complete 
representation  of  a  horse.  Ex[)erimentation  with  suggestive 
toys  and  figures  promises  to  yield  some  answer  to  the  (ptes- 
tion  as  to  \\hether  Avithin  reasonable  limits,  the  sustained 
vigor  of  constructive  imagination  is  not  in  inverse  ratio  to 
the  specific  elaboration  of  the  material  furnished. 

IJesif/n  <(H(J  color.  Small  children  ap[)ear  to  lia\e  little 
judgment  regarding  htiiess  of  designs  foi'  any  gi\-en  pur- 
pose. Thev  are  not  mature  enougli  to  undertake,  unaided, 
problems  which  rcipiire  tasteful  distribution  of  dilferent 
elements  within  a  given  area.  In  designs  in\"ol\ing  such 
arrangements,  as.  for  example,  'I'haid\sgiving  souNcnirs, 
("lu'istmas  cards.  Aalentines.  etc.,  progress  in  geiniiiie  ap[)re- 
ciation  seems  most  certain  when  thi'  teacher  works  out 
with  the  children  designs  which  are  sim[)le  and  yvi  excel- 
lent, and  thus  accustoms  them  to  examples  of  good 
arrangement  which  will  inlluencc  their  choices  when  later 
thev  })lan  their  own  scheme  of  s[)acing. 

'Vo  reconnnend.  as  the  writer  unhesitatingly  docs,  that 
these  lirst  arranuemeiits  shotlld  be  nuaU'  under  the  moi'e  (»r 


GRADE   I  43 

less  immediate  influence  of  excellent  exanipk's,  is  to  pre- 
cipitate at  once  the  general  discussion  of  the  [)lace  of 
originality  in  design.  In  recognition  of  the  ini[)()rlance  of 
this  (]uestion,  but  without  entering  u[)on  any  full  discussion, 
it  may  be  suggested  that  good  design  is  not  the  chance 
output  of  an  uninformed  mind.  A  young  child  may  produce 
somethino-  orio'inal  in  the  sense  that  it  is  a  fortuitous  ar- 
rangement  of  shapes  that  never  existed  before.  Such  a  result, 
however,  is  not  necessarily  a  design  because  it  is  original : 
nor  is  there  any  value  merely  in  the  fact  that  it  did  not 
exist  before,  if  it  is  not  good  enough  to  be  in  itself  a 
reason  why  it  should  exist  at  all,  or  if  the  experience 
involved  leads  to  no  better  production  in  the  future.  It  is 
probable  that  children  who  at  this  age,  with  no  exam[)le  or 
suggestion,  have  made  an  original  arrangement,  generally 
like  it  because  it  is  their  own  production.  I'nless  there  is 
opportunity  to  compare  it  with  something  better,  a  common- 
place arrangement  becomes  fixed  in  mind  and  its  influence 
persists  and  is  evident  in  subsecpuMit  efforts. 

On  the  other  hand,  children  at  this  age  readily  develop 
considerable  proflciency  in  })ro(lucing  the  simpler  forms  of 
decorative  arrangement,  which  consist  in  the  repetition  of 
a  single  slia[)e  to  form  a  border  or  surface  pattern.  Such 
[)atterns  occur  automatically  in  certain  forms  of  weaving, 
and  children  often  show  nuich  ingenuity  in  working  out 
the  [)Ossible  variations. 

A  sense  of  rhythmic  arrangement  can  be  directly  devel- 
oped by  reix'ating  a  sini[)l(!  unit,  with  pencil  or  brush, 
free-hand,  so  as  to  form  a  border  or  a  surface'  pattern.  The 
feeling  of  rhythm  appears  to  be  iiicreasc(l  w  lien  tliis  repeti- 
tion is  done  in  [)art  to  a  time  count,  wliich  at  lirst  is  led 
bv    the    teacher.    This    coinit    nia\'    be    socal    or    indicatt'd 


44 


FIXE  AND  IXDrSTPvIAL  ARTS 


upon  the  piano.  'J'liis  practice  in  repeatinp^  a  series  of 
forms  to  a  corresponding  movement  of  time  gives  a  sense 
of  rhythm  \\hicli  is  not  (le\'el()[)e(l  bv  (b'awing  borders  in 
which  tlie  spacing  of  ilie  units  is  iinbcated  either  by  dicta- 
ted })oints  or  with  tlie  aid  of  measurements  before  tlie 
units  are  (b'awn  (Fig.  9). 

Exercises  with  tliese  simj)l(!  borders  are  the  tirst  steps 
t(jward  more  complicated  problcnns  in  up[)er  grades,  such 
as  surface  designs,  bihiteral  forms,  and  bahniced  designs  of 
al)stra(;t  shapes,  or  conventionalized  tlower  forms  produced 
with  a  few  pencil  or  brush  strokes.  In  tliis  practice,  as  in 
[)enmanship,  beautiful  form  and  style  are  gained,  not  by 
pausing  over  one  unit  to  perfect  it,  but  by  re[)eating  the 
shape  till  the  hand  has  mastered  it  and  can  use  it  with 
facility. 

During  the  first  year  in  school  children  should  become 
familiar  with  the  colors  most  easily  recognized,  such  as  red, 
orange,  yellow,  green,  blue,  and  violet.  This  may  be  done 
by  placing  before  the  children  a  fairly  large  sam[)le  of  one 
after  anothci"  of  these  coloi's  and  having  them  collect  objects 
of  a  similar  color.  In  bits  of  cloth  and  [)aper,  and  in  llowers 
and  leaves,  the  color  undei'  consideration  will  be  discovered 
and  its  sensation  perceived  more  clearly  than  by  chance 
observation.  The  use  of  colored  crayons  for  drawing  is  also 
an  im})ortant  means  of  traiiung  recognition  and  discrhnimi- 
tion  (jf  color. 

A  reasonable  standai'd  of  accomplishment  has  been 
reached  if,  at  the  end  of  the  lirst  year  in  school,  the  children 
have  develo{)ed  a  habit  of  expressing  their  ideas  with  pencil 
so  that  drawing  seems  to  them  a  matter  of  course;  if  they 
have  gained  ability  to  handle  sini[)le  matei'ial  sueii  as  ])aper, 
chi\',  sand,  and  blocks,  so  that  such  matei'ials  assume  <lesired 


^ 

^y 

^ 

\i/ 

u. 

u. 

>4 

4, 

^ 

-4, 

> 

*>« 

y 

^ 

^ 


•A 


-A 


/^ 


/> 


^/^ 


iiiiiiitttiiiirirniiffftrrTmiiiiaBW"»i»niirniiiiiiiiiiM ' 


Fi<;.'.>.    Horilcrs  ili'iiw  11  Ircc-liainl 


40  FIXE  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

shapes;  and  if  tliev  have  o-aiiicd  sonic  ideas  of  ociod  spacing 
and  arrano'cment  under  guidance  of  the  teaclier,  and  liave 
begun  to  enjoy  the  rhythmic  spacing  of  forms  and  to  discover 
tlie  general  distinctions  of  color. 

That  their  graphic  expressions  during  this  iirst  year  are 
crude  and  their  constructions  inaccurate  wlien  ju<lged  by 
adult  ideas,  and  that  their  standai'ds  of  good  design  are 
gained  from  their  instructors,  are  notcauses  for  apprehension. 
Detailed  instruction  as  to  methods  of  holding  pencils,  or  the 
quality  of  line  to  ])c  obtained,  or  attempts  to  teach  such 
items  of  the  technical  grammar  of  drawing  as  foreshorten- 
ing or  convergence  almost  invariably  do  nnich  harm  and  no 
good  at  this  age. 

'J'he  })rimary  instructor  who  draws  with  and  for  the  chil- 
dren, and  who  constructs  objects  with  them,  is  furnishing  the 
most  potent  stinuilus  and  inspiration  for  progress  toward  in- 
dividual ability.  Compared  with  the  effect  of  this,  methods 
and  courses  without  sucli  example  are  of  secondary  \ahie. 


CHAPTER   IV 

(iUADKS    II    AND   III 

(  liildii'ii  wlio  attend  schools  wlu'i'c  instructors  cncourao'c 
drawinn'  and  constructive  work  as  an  cvcrvdav  means  of 
expression  usually  gain  reniai'kaMe  facility  during-  tlu'  lirst 
year  in  setting  forth  their  idi-as  by  thi'se  lut'ans.  Throuo-h 
tlk'ir  own  invention  and  the  suggestions  of  the  teacher  and 
of  their  fellow  pupils  they  gain  conunaud  of  a  \\ide  vai'ietv 
of  gra[)hie  synil)ols  and  simple  constructive  processes. 
Elxpressiou  hy  means  of  illustration  and  constrtu'tion,  al- 
though crude  and  archaic,  becomes  a  matter  of  course  and 
is  carried  on  with  apparent  pleasure  and  satisfaction. 

A  change  in  attitude  towai-d  the  results  is  apparent, 
however,  as  the  childi'cn  grow  oldci'.  'Jdiev  soon  cease  to  he 
wholly  satislied  with  manual  ex^jression  as  a  mere  activity 
without  regard  to  the  (pudity  of  the  product.  When  (hiring 
the  first  year  in  school  the  child"s  im[)ulse  to  prodiu-e  some- 
thing had  found  an  outlet  in  lines  or  shapes,  the  crudity  of 
the  I'csult  seldom  intci'fercd  with  his  exultation  as  he  dis- 
played liis  production,  or  causi'd  him  to  pause  for  impi'ove- 
ments  oi'  coi-rections  before  he  pi-oceeded  to  his  next  attempt. 
In  Cirades  1 1  and  1 1 1  the  pi'oduct  as  a  ])roduct  seems  to  make 
an  impression  on  the  children  and  gain  iinjtorlaucc  in  their 
estimation.  'I'liey  show  indication';  ol  cai'ing  for  the  truth 
of  the  icj»i-esentat  ion  and  the  (pialily  of  t  he  construction, 
and  wish  greatei'  know  ledge  and  nioi'e  ade(puUe  means  for 
cai-rying   out   their   ideas.     This  iicwly  awakened  desire    is 

17 


48  FIXH  AND    IXDrs'l'HIAL  ARTS 

illustrated  by  such  au  iustance  as  the  announceineut  of  a 
child  attempthig  to  represent  a  ship  at  sea,  that  he  was 
going  to  find  some  pictures  of  ships  iu  order  that  he  might 
know  more  definitely  how  the  prow  of  a  ship  was  shaped 
so  he  could  draw  his  as  it  should  l)e.  Cliildren  who  were 
making  nature  drawings  iiKpiired  how  to  make  the  bulhs 
"look  round,"  how  to  make  some  leaves  look  as  if  they 
were  behind  others,  how  to  paint  a  white  narcissus  on 
white  paper,  etc. 

This  realization  of  the  need  of  data  in  order  to  represent 
adequately,  and  of  knowledge  as  to  how  to  [)ut  material 
together  if  the  product  is  to  be  satisfactory,  offers  oppor- 
tunity to  give  instruction  which  the  children  can  put  to 
inuiiediate  use,  and  which  at  the  same  time  enriches  their 
ideas  and  extends  their  knowledge  of  shapes,  materials, 
and  processes.' 

IJased  largely  on  this  fact,  work  of  the  followin.g  general 
character  along  the  lines  of  representation,  consti-uction,  and 
design  is  reconnnended  as  appropriate  for  children  during 
the  second  and  third  years  in  scliool. 

]{i'pr<'Hciit((fioii.  (Jcueral  use  of  drawing  and  modeling 
as  means  of  expression  and  (lescri])tion  should  continue 
through  these  grades.  Tlic  freedom  and  facility  gained 
during  tlus  first  year  enable  the  children  to  rcj)resciit  the 
salient  features  of  scenes  and  incidents  with  cf»nsiderable 
effect  (Fig.  10). 

'J'he  growing  interest  of  the  childi'cn  in  the  (pialitv  of 
results  makes  worth  while  a  more  cai'cfnl  and  detailed  study 
of  objects  than  was  advisable  during  the  lirst  vear  :  and  the 
chief  additional  contribution  in  the  way  of  special  teclmicid 
instruction  which  these  grades  can  make,  aj)pears  lo  be  a 
somewdiat  intensive  study  of  a  i(i\\  typical  things  conducted 


(;i!Al)i:s    II    AM)    III 


49 


1)V  (k'Vdtiiii;"  a  scries  of  lessons  to  eaeli,  for  the  purpose  of 
enabling"  the  ehiUhvu  to  draw  these  partieiihir  thiuos  welL 
Sueh  study  frees  the  drawing  from  some  of  its  crudity  and 
directs  the  beginnino-s  of  tlie  kind  of  ol)servation  whicli 
slioukl  resuh  hiter  in  correct  im[)ressions  aiul  the  ahihty  to 
record  them  with  some  (U\gree  of  accuracy.  Chihh-en  of  tliis 
age  progress  rapidly  when  they  work  for  se\'eral  consecutive 


% 


'D 


i 


['!' 


^ 


Fio.  10.    lllustrativf  .skc'tclies 


lessons  upon  the  same  to[)ic,  ex[)i'essing  it  each   time  in   a 
ditVerent  wa\'. 

For  example,  if  the  subject  luidei'  consideration  is  a 
house,  after  the  children  have  doiu'  their  best  in  rcpi'c- 
senting  it,  attention  mav  be  callcil  to  [)ailicular  and  sig- 
niticant  points:  foi'  instance,  the  desirability  that  the  sides 
of  a  house  stand  nch  icalh'.  TlicN'  should  examine  the 
houses  thev  arc  drawing  to  see  if  an\  of  tlicm  lean.  They 
I'cadiK"  become  iiitei'cstcd  in  this  gcdiiicti'ic  relation,  and 
for  a   time   will   work   earnest  1\    o\cr  houses  on   paper  and 


50  FIXE   AND    IXDrs'l'TvIAL   ARTS 

l)lackl)()ai'(l,  ill  tlie  eiuleavor  to  make  the  sides,  doors,  win- 
(lows,  and  cliimiieys  exactly  vertical.  They  are  then  eager 
to  draw  villages  in  \\liich  every  liouse  stands  n[)right  and 
where  feiiees,  poles,  etc.,  are  in  proper  })osition. 

Later  thev  niav  add  to  their  fund  of  delinite  knoM'ledfre 
by  a  study  of  houses  and  })ictures  of  liouses.  to  see  liow 
gables  ai'e  sha})ed,  how  doors  and  windows  are  placed,  how 
ehimneys  join  roofs,  etc.  They  may  cut  pictures  of  houses 
from  paper  or  trace  them,  and  by  actual  nuiscular  move- 
ments over  the  shapes  gain  a  clearer  perception  of  them. 
They  may  make  patterns  for  the  construction  of  houses  in 
paper  or  cardboard  and  build  houses  in  the  sandbox,  which 
shall  embody  the  ideas  thus  far  gained. 

If  the  material  out  of  ^\•hich  the  house  is  constructed  is 
of  particular  interest,  as  in  the  case  of  a  log  liouse,  the 
problem  of  learning  how  to  re[)resent  this  becomes  a  topic 
for  study.  Fig.  11  shows  studies  of  houses  by  cjiildreii  in 
these  grades.  The  result  of  practice  in  vertical  and  hori- 
zontal relations  is  observal)le  in  the  sketcli  of  the  lire, 
where,  notwithstanding  the  intei'est  in  depicting  exciting 
details,  the  geometric  relations  of  the  sli'uctural  lines  have 
been  fairly  wtdl  I'cpresented. 

Again,  if  the  suljject  for  illustration  is  a  bii'd,  the  iirst 
drawing  may  be  followed  by  a  study  of  the  shape  of  the 
laird's  head,  the  way  his  feet  are  place(l  upon  the  ground, 
the  angle  at  which  he  stands.  The  bird  may  be  drawn  on 
{)aper,  modided  in  (day,  cut  from  pa{)er,  [)ainte(l  or  drawn 
in  coloi'.  Pictures  nuiy  l)e  collecte(l  illustrating  the  bird  in 
\arious  [)ositions  and  activities,  and  some  of  these  may  l)e 
traced  and  cut  out.  After  a  child  has  gained  what  he  can 
fi-om  observation,  and  his  progress  in  i-epreseiit iiig  a  gi\fn 
object  seems  to  have  reached  its  limit  for  the  time,  his  powers 


(iKAI)KS    II    AND   III 


51 


of  expression  reeeive  a  fresh  impulse  if  lie  can  si-e  some 
one  draw  skillfully  the  thing's  he  is  irvini;-  to  i'c[)res('nt.  'I'o 
furnish  sueh  an  impulse  hy  drawing  with  faeility  l)eforc  the 
ehildren  is  one  of  the  most  valual)le  eontrihutions  a  s[)ecial 
teaeher  of  dra\\ini4'  ran  make  durino-  these  two  years. 

.Vfter  a  few  lessons  the  ehildren  master  tlie  general  sha})e 
and  charaeteristies  of  the  bird  so  that  they  ean  illustrate 


i  i  J 


i      -»       d^ 


Fii...  11.    Drawiim.s  of  Iidu.sc;: 


any  story  whieh  admits  of  interpi'etation  in  terms  of  that 
l)ird  and  its  actiyiti»'s.  and  the  drawings  arc  informed  with 
all  the  details  and  data  gained  in  the  seyeial  steps. 

The  interest  of  the  children  increases  with  successiye 
lessons  it  each  presents  some  new  [)hasc.  Thcic  is  a  familiar 
background  to  which  to  I'cfer  iicv,  elements.  Al  lirst  the 
chililreii  are  likely  to  make  thcii'  drawings  nnnli  alike. 
.\fter  al)sorbing  items  of  detail  fidiii  piciuics  ami  objects, 
their  productions  show  great  \  ariety  and  a  marked  ad\  ance 


o2  FIXE  AND   IM)rs'J'KIAI>  Ali'lS 

in  defiiiiteness  of  sliape,  eoiTectiiess  of  general  pro{)ortion.s, 
and  expressiveness  of  eliaraeter. 

The  important  advantage  (jf  tlie  enmnlative  efTeet  of  a 
number  of  earefully  planne(l  conseeutive  lessons  on  the 
same  topic  is  often  overlooked,  and  as  a  result  drawing 
frecjuently  fails  to  show  definite  })rogress.  and  either  ceases 
to  interest  or  becomes  so  mnch  a  matter  of  sn[)erhcial 
facility  that  children  miss  the  stimulation  tliat  comes  with 
a  measural)ly  thorongh  mastery  of  a  subject.  Advancement 
in  al)ilitv  to  draw  seems  to  become  evident,  not  at  lii'st  in 
gradual  incrcnise  of  [)ower  to  draw  anything  that  may  be 
presentt'd,  but  in  learning  how  to  draw  one  thing  after 
another  and  thus  accunuilating  a  graphic  vocabulaiy.  The 
facts  that  children  have  to  l)e  taught  how  to  draw  t'ach 
new  object,  and  that  the  true  sco[)e  for  originality  at  tiiis 
age  is  not  so  nuu-h  in  attempting  to  learn  by  unaideil  efforts 
how  to  draw  an  object  as  in  using  it  expressively  aftei'  it 
is  leai'ued,  should  be  taken  into  account  in  plainung  work 
for  [)rimary  children. 

The  interest  tliat  is  evident  when  a  group  of  children 
woi'k  together  on  a  single  topic,  devtdoping  tlie  descri[ition 
as  tlun'  [)roceed,  is  a  factor  that  mav  be  utihze(l.  I'^or 
example,  when  tlie  beginning  of  an  illustration  of  some 
topic  in  wliich  the  cliildren  are  interested  is  made  on  tlie 
l)oard,  all  are  generally  enthusiastic  in  contributing  a  shai-e 
to  the  result.  Topics  suggested  by  the  school  woi'k  or  out- 
side interests,  such,  for  example,  as  a  farm,  a  cit\"  street,  a 
wharf,  a  market,  a  harvest  held.  etc..  ai'c  excellent,  llie 
children  show  grt'al  resoui'cefulncss  in  com])osing  the 
scene  and  offering  additional  matei'ial.  and  after  the  hrst 
rapid  sketching  is  done  they  are  rt'ady  to  collect  data  for 
coi'rection  and  improvement  of  the  results.    Fig.  1:^  show's 


GRADES   11   AND  HI 


53 


an   arrangement   of  paper  cuttings  by  a  class  wliicli   was 
making  a  study  of  frogs. 

The  results  of  the  special  instruction  should  continually 
be  absorbed  into  the  general  descriptive  drawing  and  be- 
come apparent  there.  Otherwise  little  inipro\enient  will  l)e 
evident  in  the  general  drawing,  and  not  nuich  that  is  of 
permanent  value  will  come  from  the  technical  instruction. 


^ 


1/- 


^    '^ 

t^^  ^      :^^^» 


Fi<;.  12.    Paper  ruttiiii,'s  uuule  l)y  a  primary  class  after  stiidyini;  frog.s 

(JoHiffructirc  K'fjrk.  Part  of  the  construct ivi'  \\"ork  mav 
with  advantage  [)arallel  the  \\()rk  in  drawing,  so  that  the 
same  things  which  ai'c  being  re[)resentc(l  in  two  dimensions 
may  also  be  constructc(l  in  thi'cc.  That  such  a  relation 
enriches  the  value  of  both  means  of  expi'cssion  is  shown  b\ 
the  inci'cased  un<lerslandiiig  of  form  rellecte(l  by  the  draw- 
ings, when  the  same  objects  are  being  constructed,  and  by 
the  amount  of  data  and  snu'ijestion  which  is  secured   iirst 


54  FIXE  AND  IXDl'STHIAL  AUTS 

by  drawing  and  then  embodied  in  the  construction.  Such 
problems  as  houses,  furniture,  and  the  various  articles 
related  to  studies,  games,  and  occupations,  are  continually 
presenting  themselves  and  offer  an  abundant  list  of  topics. 
In  most  primary  manual  problems  drawing  and  construc- 
tion are  both  involved  in  the  final  result. 

In  addition  to  free,  illustrative  construction,  these  grades 
should  also  present  the  lirst  steps  in  wtdl-planned  work 
which  I'ecjuires  careful  measurements  and  exact  delinea- 
tion of  pattei'us.  This  means  the  beginning  of  working 
drawings.  During  the  first  year  most  of  the  })aper  cut- 
ting that  necessitated  following  a  predetermined  shape  was 
based  upon  outlines  furnished  to  the  children,  such  as  pic- 
tures and  patterns.  In  addition  to  this  the  children  should 
now  l)egin  to  make  their  own  patterns,  and  should  come  to 
ap})reciate  the  value  of  tin-  rule  as  an  instrument  for  deter- 
mining measurements  and  straight  lines  A\ith  precision.  It 
is  not  dillicult  to  awaken  and  maintain  interest  in  the 
accurate  use  of  the  rule,  if  the  problems  presented  involve 
at  lirst  only  a  few  lines  and  measurements  of  even  inches 
and  later  half  and  (pnu'ter  inches.  Tlie  rule  used  by  the 
children  for  constructive  woi'k  during  these  years  should 
not  contain  smaller  divisions  than  (|uarter  iuchc^s.  The 
children  should  l)e  sliown  how  lo  manipulate  it,  and  sliould 
\)e  interested  in  maintaining  a  relatively  high  standard 
of  accuracy  \\henever  the  work  departs  from  free-hand 
expression  and  re(piires  an  instrument  of  accuracy.  The 
rules  provided  for  children  are  often  confusing  because  of 
the  method  used  in  many  cases  for  indicating  dimensions. 
The  hgures  are  fre(p,iently  place<l  beside  instead  of  over 
the  line.  So  many  mistakes  in  measurements  made  by 
young  children  are  directly  traceable  to  this  cause  that  it 


GRADES   II  AND  III  55 

seems  worth  while  to  select  a  rule  which,  as  in  Fii;-.  18, 
eliminates  this  eoiifusion. 

Bookmarks,  tags,  weather  signals,  flags,  pinwheels,  val- 
entines, covers,  envelopes  and  folders  for  school  work,  illus- 
trative diagrams  such  as  plans  for  school  gardens  and  other 
projects  of  this  sort  will  give  opportunity  for  [)lanning 
objects  l)y  simple  patterns  in  the'  flat. 

It  is  important  that  during  these  two  years  a  few  funda- 
mental geometric  relations  should  be  thoroughly  appre- 
hended by  repeated  use.  The  relations  of  vertical,  horizontal. 


Fi(j.  13.    Foot  rules  properly  marked  for  primary  children 

and  parallel  occur  in  such  drawing  and  construction  as  are 
called  for  by  the  house  already  suggested. 

In  addition  to  the  subjects  involving  these  relations  some 
drill  work  repeated  at  frecpUMit  intervals  is  necessary  to  in- 
sui'e  the  complete  mastery  of  such  relations,  and  ease  and 
conlidencc  in  using  them.  In  the  third  grade  this  drill  may  be 
undertaken  with  good  results.  For  example,  when  lines  are 
drawn  on  the  board  at  various  angles  children  are  interested 
in  trying  to  draw  other  lines  pai'allel  to  the  givtMi  ones  and 
testing  their  e(piidistance.  'I'liey  ;dso  like  to  acconi[)any 
their  fi'ce-hand  drawing  and  coiistiiiclioii  witli  occasional 
drawings  of  \'ertical  lines  on  tiie  Itoard.  holding  tlie  ohalk  at 
arm's  length  and  [)roducing  tlie  line  slowly  and  steadily  to  a 


50 


FIXE  AND   JXDrsTllIAL  AUTS 


length  (if  two  or  three  feet  and  then  testing  it  witli  a  })hinib 
hne.  Horizontal  lines  and  lines  to  represent  given  slants 
shonld  also  reeeive  r.ttention.  It  is  of  gri'at  ini[)ortanee  that 
these  geometric  relations  shonld  hi'  thorongldy  mastered  so 
that  they  may  he  nsed  A\ith  facility.  'I"he  mind  has  then 
a  developed  appreciation  of  fnndamental  relations,  and  a 
standard  for  estimating  and  comparing  variations  from  these. 


F\(;.  14.    Desiuus  for  budkiiiarks  and  vali'iitiiu' 


7Jrs!(//i.  'I'lie  general  lines  of  work  snggested  tor(irade  I 
continne  through  (irades  II  and  III  with  liighei'  stand- 
ards of  aeeoiiiplishmeiit.  The  problems  invoKc  plamung 
simj)le  forms  to  he  constrneted  and  decorating  them  \\itli 
snitahle  oi'iiameiitation — sneli  olijects  as  holiday  greetings 
and  souN'enirs,  bookmarks,  \alentines.  covers  tor  school 
])a[)ei's.  etc.  Fig.  14  shows  bookmai'ks  and  a  \alentine. 
Tlie  decorations  mav  consist  of  nnits  and  b(ii'(h'rs.  which 
the    cliiMren    I'cadily    iiixent    by    [ilacing    [)egs    and    lentils. 


(JKADES   II  AND   III 


•5»       •o-        'ih        -if 

•r       •*•       •?.      .o- 

.4.     .0.    •i.-.o- 

/ 

1 — ^ ' — ~*;-*i- 

^   ••.    .«.    .^. 


* 

X 

X 

» 

X 

X 

% 

St 

s< 

i 

^- 

K 

K"^ 

Laat 

-*A.. 

-..  i 

-fl 


•C-*  «#•  •«•  ! 

►  •  t  '■ 

)*i^  •«•  .•>  •*» 


--Aj^ftjft. -^  ^^    


I  .  .  •  J 


Fk;.  ]';.    Surface  patterns  made  uf  tlil'tVreiit  arraimeiiieiits  df  simts 

iiftcrwards  sclcctiiiL;'  aiul  <lra\\iiii;'  the  best  of  tlicst' arraii^'c- 
iiieiits  ( I'vj;.  I'")).  'I'lic  ii!\ciiti(iii  of  tlic  cliildrcii  at  this  a^X' 
can  vci'V  easily  Ix'  <lii'cct('(|  aloiit;-  the  lines  of  i^'ood  types  of 


58  FIXE  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

(k'sigii  by  the  example  of  the  teaeher.  Leadership  whieli, 
by  example,  directs  inventive  activities  along  right  lines 
at  iirst,  obviates  the  necessity  of  much  of  that  correction 
and  verbal  instruction  which  are  sometimes  necessary  \\hen 
poor  arrangements  have  become  fixed  in  the  mind. 

The  children  should  continue  the  rhythmic  drawing  of 
borders  by  repeating  units  to  a  time  count  corresponding 
somewhat  to  that  of  nuisic.  After  the  experience  of  the 
first  year  they  are  usually  able  to  use  more  dii'licult  units, 
to  draw  them  with  excellent  spacing,  and  to  a})ply  them 
in  making  decoi'ative  borders  and  sim})le  surface  patterns 
upon  the  forms  they  have  constructed,  employing  no  other 
measurements  than  those  I'apidly  estimated  by  the  eye  as 
tlie  drawing  proceeds.  Fig.  It!  shows  the  bowls  of  the 
Three  IJears,  a  parrot  which  had  been  a  subject  for  form 
study,  and  a  flower,  used  as  units. 

During  the  second  year  the  children  learn  readilv  to 
discriminate  hues  of  color  more  exactly  than  in  the  first 
year,  and  to  bring  in  samples  oi'  to  pick  out  objects,  the 
Cfdors  of  which  ai'c  like  the  samples  shown  Iw  the  teacher. 
In  the  third  year  they  may  with  advantage  learn  to  dis- 
tinguish sevei'al  ste[)s  in  the  diffei'eiit  values  of  a  given 
color.  The  woi'd  "value  ""  is  used  here  to  denote  the  rela- 
tion of  a  color  to  light  and  dark.  In  this  significance  of  the 
term  the  value  of  a  color  changes  as  the  color  grows  lighter 
or  darker.  For  example,  if  white  is  mixed  with  green  the 
resulting  lighter  grei'U  is  higher  in  \alue.  If  black  instead 
of  white  is  mixed  with  it,  the  resulting  darker  <()lor  is 
lower  in  value  than  the  original  grt-en.  Children  may  col- 
lect or  be  furnished  with  an  abundance  of  color  samples, 
and  after  selecting  those  of  one  color  hue,  —  for  example, 
blue,  —  arranu'e  these  so  as  to  form  a  series  of  different 


(;kai)i:s  ii  and  hi 


oU 


valiu's.  iaii;4iii;4'  from  li<4'lit  hliics  wliicli  arc  alniosl  wliiir  id 
tliosi- w  liicli  a[i[)r(iacli  black.  In  a  similar  maiiiu'r  llic\  iiia\ 
arraiii^'c  \aliic  scales  of  ollici'  colors.  Any  L^'i'cal  dci^rcc  i){ 
accui'ac\-  ill  these  arraiiL;-emciits  should  not  he  (lemaii(le(l. 
nor  should  the  numher  of  stc[)S  hetween  the  lightest 
and   dai'kcst    ln'  so  manv  that    the  children    cannot    rt-adih' 


6  6^       v^d«5       4  6    i5 


{*^»  ^i^(>>(*^C^i^ixcm^Xfx 


V\<..  IC..     ISMnliTs  lit'  \iiiit-  ^uuuc.-ted  liy  l^iiics  in  ililTiTciit  .-ili.i,,l  >niiliis 

l>el'cei\-e  the  chailL;'*'  from  one  step  to  another.  I'"i\-e  steps 
hetween  hi^htest  and  darkest  ai'c  suflicieut  to  ilhisiiale  well 
the  effects  of  \  ai'ious  \alnes.  while  seNcii  ai'c  as  maii\'  as 
ean  he  appi-eciate( j  h\-  most  childi-eu   in  these  L;i'ades. 

Ahm\'  of  the  desi'_;'ns  maile  h\  ehildi'en  call  for  color 
eomhinations  and  '/wv  opporlnnitx  lo  use  ihi'  eiVecls  of 
different   steps  of  \alue   in   jileasin^'  eomhinations. 


60  FINK  AND   IXDISTKIAL  ARTS 

Youiio-  children  can  use  water  color  to  excellent  achan- 
tage  for  the  occasional  experience  of  color  effects,  but  they 
are  too  young  for  any  very  intelligent  handling  of  a  medium 
so  capricious.  During  the  first  three  years  al)out  all  the 
color  expression  that  is  valuable  can  be  secured  1)V  collec- 
tions of  samples  and  by  the  use  of  cojored  crayons.  The 
disadvantages  of  postponing  the  reguliu'  use  of  water  color 
till  tlie  fourth  year  are  probably  moiv  than  compensated 
for  by  the  fresh  stimulation  from  the  introduction  of  a 
new  medium  at  that  time,  and  by  the  fact  that  the  results 
obtained  l)y  primaiy  children  in  water  color,  A\hich  are 
admired  by  adults,  are  almost  always  chance  effects  caused 
l)y  the  Huid  character  of  the  me(lium  and  were  uid'oreseen 
l)y  tlu'  child.  Experimentation  with  accidental  color  effects 
has  a  dehnite  value,  but  this  value  is  perhaps  greater  when 
the  experimenter  is  somewhat  more  mature  and  le^s  likidy 
to  gain  the  idea  that  careless  ventures  which  may  turn  out 
to  be  pleasing  are  more  worth  while  and  likely  to  receive 
greater  rec-ognition  than  purposeful  effort. 

A  reasonaljle  standard  of  accomplishment  has  been 
reached  if.  at  the  end  of  the  third  year  in  school,  the  chil- 
dren, in  addition  to  increased  facility  in  drawing,  have  also 
added  to  their  resources  of  expression  a  somewhat  dclinilc 
knowledge  ol  a  few  typical  ol)jects.  gaine(l  l)y  sncccssixc 
lessons  on  the  same  to^jic,  and  have  lixed  in  mind  certain 
fundamental  gcometi'ic  relations,  such  as  \ertical.  jierpeu- 
dicular,  horizontal,  and  parallel,  not  as  dehnitious  l)ut  as 
means  of  comprehending  and  expressing  I'oi'in  :  if  tliey  ha\'e 
developt'd  their  al)ility  to  embody  ideas  in  matci-ials.  not 
only  as  a  result  of  increase(l  skill  of  hand  but  also  because 
of  the  added  j)ower  gix'cn  bv  some  connnand  over  sncli  an 
aid  to  accuracN',    foresi'ihl,  and  econoin\    as  a  toot  rule:   if 


(;kai)i:s  ii  and  hi 


Gl 


tliev  have  better  ideas  of  o-ood  sjiaein;^"  and  proportions,  and 
an  inert'ascd  pleasure  in  al)ilily  to  distriUute  forms  o\cr  a 
surface  in  consistently  related  measures,  and  to  discrimi- 
nate (jualities  of  color. 

'i'lie  stinuilation  of  leadership  and  example  of  the  teacher 
continues  to  he  a  factor  of  the  lirst  importance  in  securin;.;' 
these  results. 


(•iiAi''ri:i{  \' 

(iKADKS    1\-   AM)    \' 

Wlu'ii  cliildrcii  rcacli  tlic  t'ourtli  ycai'  in  school  the  [)ri'io(l 
of  satisfaction  in  tlie  nu'iv  spontancons  play  willi  drawinL!,' 
and  \\itli  consti'ucti\c  inatt-i-ials  rcoai'dlcss  of  tiic  (|nalit\" 
of  the  [)rodnct  is  nsnally  ovci'.  Al)ility  in  spoken  and 
written  lani^'na^e  has  otowii.  and  expression  hy  draw  inl- 
and construction  is  resorted  to  less  frec^nently  exce[.t  in 
cases  where  lanL;'naL;'e  is  not  ade([nate.  (liilih'cn  who  at 
an  earlier  peri(td  ha\t'  heen  dehuiitcfl  in  sha})inu  lines  and 
forms  which  were  a  I'uninn^'  acconipaninieiil  of  theii'  ti'ains 
of  ideas  now  see  tliini^'s  more  oliject i\(d\'  and  ai'c  con- 
scions  of  the  techincal  shorlcominL^'s  of  tlieir  work  to  a 
dt'o-i-ce  that  i-ohs  il  of  its  spontaneity. 

The  \isitor  to  exliihitions  oi'  pnhlic-scliool  work  in  man- 
ual arts  is  usually  impressed  l»y  the  \'iLi'or  and  expres- 
siveness of  the  productions  of  small  cliildreii.  an<l  ofttMi 
]ool<s  in  \ain  in  the  ^\•ork  of  upj)er  grades  toi'  an\' ade(puUc 
fultillnieiit  of  tlie  eai'lv  promise.  Indeed  it  is  doubtful  if 
drawing  and  construction  as  means  of  general  narrati\c 
expression  will  e\'er  a^'ain  l)e  of  as  i^real  \alue  as  in  pi'i- 
mar\  ^fades.  The  function  of  manual  arts  hccomcs  iiici-cas- 
inL;i\'  speciHc  as  the  school  ai^'e  ad\ances  ami  lan^uauc 
assumes  its  propel'  place  as  the  most  appi'opi'iate  medium 
of  n'eliel-al   expression. 

.Manual  arts  in  these  L;-railes  should  awaken  a  pleasure 
in  the  sort  of  work  which  i'e(|uii'es  sustained  effort  dii-ected 


(.KADKS    \y  AND  V 


tio 


toward  a  (Icliiiilc  riid.  A  wrll-or^aiii/.i'tl  courst'  prrsciits 
prohK'ins  to  the  cliildiTii  which  arc  as  spccihc  as  those  in 
inalhi'iuatics.  The  sohilioii  of  cacli  of  these  [)rol)leiiis  means 
a  slep  toward  some  mastery  of  materials  or  meliiods,  and 
this  masterv  should  he  insured  hy  work  iu\(>l\  ine'  re[)ealed 
eouet-ntratioii  upon  the  same  prohlem  in  various  foiins  till 
the  fundamental  proei'sses  heeonu'  matters  of  hahit. 

Interest  in  new  projects  is  easily  awakened,  hut  that 
interest  which  is  aroused  hy  cai^ryin^'  a  [iroject  throun'h 
to  com[)]etion  after  the  tirst  enthusiasm  has  passed  is  of 
nuu-h  slower  growth,  hut  is  more  trustworthy,  and  when 
systematicallv  developed  becomes  a  motix'e  that  can  he 
relie<l  u[)on.  The  attitude  of  mind  towards  the  arts  which 
is  awakeiu'd  in  the  children  in  these  ^-rades  seems  lai'^'ely 
to  deti'rnune  the  (lev(do})ment  (»f  ahility  durinL;'  the  rt'inaiu- 
dei'  ol   the  school  course. 

The  followin;^'  su^e'estions  foi'  woi'k  in  repi'csentation, 
construction,  and  (lesion  em[)hasi/.e  the  points  in  ti'chnical 
dcNclopmeiit  which  the  abilities  of  childi'cn  seem  to  indi- 
cate as  j)ail  icuiarJN'  ap})ropriate  to  these  grades,  and  which 
are  factors  necessary  to  freedom  of  ex[)i'ession. 

Hijirixi'iitdtinii.  ()iu'  of  the  most  important  technical 
conirihutioiis  which  (ii'ades  J  \'  and  \'  can  make  to  a  childs 
skill  in  drawino'  appears  to  he  ahilit\'  to  represent  ot'iuMal 
projxirtions  cori'e(;tlv.  This  more  than  anytiiint;'  else  helps 
him  to  reali/.e  his  wish  at  this  a^'c.  t(»  make  thing's  'look 
i-i^hl.""  ('hildi'cn  readily  discern  whethci'  a  di-awino-  is 
too  tall  ""  ol'  too  slioit  ""  as  coiupai'cil  w  ilh  the  ohject,  and 
they  de\t'lop  ahilitx'  to  estimate  relati\c  lengths  of  |)arts 
with    some    decree    of    precision. 

(  )nc  (if  ihc  most  coMuiioii  nicthnds  of  (ll)taillin^•  <-orrcct 
[ii'oport  ions   IS  to  hold   the  pencil  at  arms  length  so  that    it 


64 


FIXE  AND  ]NJ)rs'ruiAI.  ARTS 


appears  to  cover  liiu's  of  tlie  ()l)jeet  to  l)e  drawn.  Thus 
one  is  ena])le(l  to  use  it  as  a  measure  of  relative  dinien- 
sions.  .Aside  from  the  fact  tliat  it  is  practically  impossible 
to  teach  youno-  children  to  use  this  method  with  any 
trustworthy  results,  the  assistance  obtained  by  sucli  meas- 
urements, even  when  they  are  skillfully  taken,  is  of 
extremely  doubtful  value.  ProiJi^ress  in  ability  to  draw  cor- 
rectly de})ends  largely  u^jou  th(i  power  to  compare  visual 
images  and  discern  their  likenesses  and  differences.    Pencil 


^ 


■-.A 


Fk;.  17.    Helativt'  propcirtiniis  of  width  and  lii'iulit 

measurements   substitute   a   mathematical   computation   for 
this  visual  perception. 

For  example,  in  Fig.  17  tlu;  pu})il  can  measure  and 
ascertain  that  the  width  of  the  to[)  of  the  tumbler  is  two 
thirds  of  the  apparent  height,  and  with  this  information 
can  plan  his  drawing  correctly.  ( )n  the  other  hand,  if  he 
will  indicate  the  to[)  and  bottom  of  his  tund)k'r  by  lines  of 
indeterminate  length,  and  place  two  splints  to  I'cprcsent 
the  sides,  moving  them  until  the  incduded  shape  satisiies 
his  eye,  lie  will  discover  that  he  can  thus  determine  tlie 
proportions  with  great  accuracy.     If  one  looks  at  u,  \\  hich 


(;i;ai)Ks  iv  and  v 


is  tlic  sliajK'  to  be  rt>[)resciile(l,  and  then  at  Ik  lie  sees  iinnu'- 
(liatrly  that  A  is  too  narrow,  wliilc  the  imao'c  of  <(  Ills  tliat 
of  r,  and  the  similarity  of  proportions  satislies  llie  eve. 
The  source  of  this  satisfaction  is  not  due  to  any  continua- 
tion from  a  mathematical  estimation  that  the  pro[)ortions 
of  width  and  heiyht  are  related  as  '1  to  ■].  hut  to  au  innue- 
diate  perce})tiou  of  c()rres[)ondeuce  of  images.  Discrimi- 
nation'aloni;'  this  line  develo[)s  rapidly  with  exercise.  In 
(irades  W  and  \'  much  should  be  done  toward  training 
the  eye  to  swift  and  unerring"  })erception  of  the  a^'reement 
or  disa<;'ret'ment  of  the  shape  of  the  drawino-  with  that  of 
the  o])ject.  I'ldess  this  is  done,  drawing'  will  be  as  halt- 
ing' and  uncertain  as  are  matiicmatical  j)i'ocesst's  when  the 
worker  is  not  suri'  of  tlu'  nuiltiplication  table. 

Pencil  nieasni'cments  mi<4'lit  be  recommeiide(l  as  a  linal 
veriiication,  except  for  the  fact  that  they  are  sel(h)m  so 
relial)le.  even  when  carefully  taken,  as  the  visual  perce[)- 
tion  which  has  rt'ceived  an  amount  of  training'  e(pnU  to  that 
re([uired  in  lower  (dementary  g-radcs  for  the  mere  process 
of  leai'uiu^"  to  take  pencil  measurements. 

Occasional  ]'e})resentation  of  objects  by  s[)lints  o-iyos 
excellent  practice  in  jud^ino-  proportions.  A  mo\('meiit  of 
tiie  splints  oives  op[)oi-tunity  to  experiment  with  appear- 
ances without  the  necessity  of  erasing'  lines.  Such  i'e[)re- 
sentation  is  often  a  htd[)ful  introduction  to  di'awing  the 
object  with  ])cncil. 

In  the  drawing  of  a  tov  boat  (  I'ig.  1 J^  ),  a  child  can  be 
le(l  to  take  great  interest  in  I'epresent ing  the  hull  in  propel- 
])roport ions,  and  in  mo\ing  the  pencil  along  the  di'awing 
till  it  I'caches  the  exact  position  wlici-e  the  mast  should  be 
j)laced  and  then  in  showing  liow  tall  it  should  be  to  Idok 
lik(,'    the    ino(lel.     lie    is    thus    le(l    t(i   tliink   \\  hei'c    his    liui; 


00 


FIXK   AND    IXDISTRIAI.   AIJTS 


should  o-()  hel'div  lir  draws  it.  and  tlic  cultiN  atioii  (if  this 
hahit  of  pr()fe<luiv  (•(Hitrihutcs  lar^'cdy  to  correct  drawiun'. 
A  laro'c  pait  of  the  poor  di'awiii;^  found  in  schools  is  diiccth' 


Fk..  is.    Cliihrs  ilrawiiiu  i)t'  a  tnvhuat  in  rui-i-cct  in'Mjini'ti'iii.^ 

traceable  itt  a  i'e\('i'sal  of  this  iiieihod.  iianu'h'.  to  draw  iui;' 
a  line  llioui4hllessly  and  then  looldiiL;'  to  sec  if  it  is  riuiit. 
(hildi-cu  al  this  a^c  seldom  develop  a  hahil  of  hlockin'.;'  in 
the  whole  shape  at   tirsl.  csptM'ially    in    a    group   of  ohjects. 


CRADKS    \y  AND  V 


07 


Thai  aj)[)inu's  to  1)0  a  nictliod  of  analysis  and  s\iitlicsis 
(U'Hiandiiin'  uuirc  intt'llcctual  nialurity  than  they  possess. 
Tlu'V  add  pari   to  j)art  and  so  hnild  U[)  the  iTsull. 

IVTct'ption  of  ])i'oporlions  often  may  In-  slinndalcd  Itv 
having-  pu[)ils  rxchantic  drawings  and  iiidicalc  to  each 
other,  hv  sketches  or  otherwise,  how  they  think  ini[)ro\('- 
nients  may  he  made.  The  child  who  hahitualh'  maizes  his 
drawing's  loo  hroad  and  lunny  may  with  proht  exchan^'e 
drawin<;'s  and  suo'^'estions  with  the  child  who  n'oes  to  the 
op[)osite  extreme.  Thi'  instructor  too  often  mono[)oli/,es  this 
\ahial)le  experience  of  correctiiiL;'  the  di'awinos  of  othei's. 

('onstrncted  ohjects  such  as  toys  or  implements  offer 
exc(dlent  op[)ortunily  for  pi'aclice  in  representing'  correct 
proportions.  Nature  drawino's  with  pencil  or  with  water 
eoloi'  or  hrush  and  ink  call  for  careful  re[)resenlal  ion  of 
shapes  and  of  chai'acler  of  o'rowth.  Mechanical  slowness 
may  he  avoide(l  hy  alleinat  in^'  rapid  sketches  which  exj)ress 
as  nnicli  as  [jossihle  hy  a  few  lines  and  hrush  strokes,  with 
drawings  carried  to  comj)letion  hy  hein^'  worked  o\ fr  till 
thev  are  as  correct  as  the  pupil  can  make  them. 

A  second  appropi'iate  topic  for  these  o'rades  is  the  stu(l\' 
of  a  U'W  simple  prohlems  of  appearance  of  ohjecis  in  dif- 
fei'enl  positions,  for  example,  one  ohject  hcNond  another, 
or  the  same  ohject  turned  at  difi'ereiit  angles.  I'he  solut  ion 
sliould  c(»nstitute  a  delinite  [)iece  of  work  foi'  the  pupil,  and 
should  he  souLi'lit  hy  ohseiAation,  hy  experimental  sketciies, 
and  1)\'  the  collection  and  study  of  pictui'cs  which  repi'csent 
such  el'fects. 

A  more  oi-  less  iutensix'c  stud\'  of  a  few  topics  in  each 
!4'ra(h'  is  necessar\-  lo  pi-os^i'css  in  free  use  of  (h'awiiiL;'. 
Ahinidaiice  of  know  lediL;'e  rcLjarihiiL;'  an  ohject  oi'  a  picloiial 
effect   tends  to   produce  a    willingness   to   expi'css    w  hal    is 


08  FIXE  AND   IXDISTUIAL  AliTS 

known.  'J'lie  nse  of  sketclil^ooks  devoted  to  particular 
subjects  in  tlicir  various  aspects  and  details  is  an  important 
nietliod  of  gainino-  pictorial  data.  The  knowledge  accunui- 
lated  by  intensive  study  of  a  topic  persists  for  a  long  time. 

CniMrucflo/i.  The  most  important  advance  in  construc- 
tive work  which  (Jrades  I\'  and  \'  can  make,  a})pears  to 
be  along  the  line  of  ability  and  willingness  to  undertake 
more  careful  preparation  in  the  way  of  plans  and  patterns 
before  shaping  the  material  for  final  consti'uction.  In  addi- 
tion an  increase  of  skill  in  handling  new  implements  and 
more  refractory  materials,  and  a  gi'eater  satisfaction  in  good 
workmanship,  should  be  evident. 

Problems  will  xnvy  with  the  conditions  of  given  locali- 
ties. Some  instructors  [)refer  to  use  c(jnstructive  work  as 
a  center  for  other  subjects.  Others  plan  a  course  to  de- 
velop appreciation  of  industries  and  occupations,  and  still 
others  choose  as  a  basis  for  problems  the  innnediate  needs 
and  interests  of  school  and  home.  Wlnchever  line  is  em- 
phasized, much  of  what  is  valuable  in  the  rest  may  be 
include(l,  and  in  any  case  oj)portunity  will  be  f)ffered  for 
experimentation  with  plans  and  designs  and  for  increased 
mastery  of  tools  and  materials. 

Some  of  the  inost  valuable  projects  for  these  grades  are 
those  involving  patterns  to  l)e  cut,  folded,  and  pasted. 
Continued  use  f)f  the  rule,  with  the  addition  of  compasses 
and  45°  triangles,  and  more  complete  control  of  scissors 
give  the  lu^cessary  mechanical  ability.  The  children  should 
be  enabled  to  })lan  and  make  picture  mounts,  lesson  covers, 
emelopes  for  \arious  specified  pui'poses,  etc.  W'itli  vellum, 
l)inding  pajx'is.  tape,  j)aste,  sewing  linen,  and  a  puncli 
cardboai-d  work  niav  be  extended  to  include  simple  forms 
of   bookbinding,    such    as    portfolios,    sketchbooks,    pocket 


(iKADKS   IV  AND  V 


09 


memorandum   pails,   notebooks,   ncedleeases.   Ijook    covers, 
clipping  tik'S,  etc.  (Fig-  19). 

Weaving  is  an  occupation  of  tiniversal  interest  during 
these  gra(k\s.  It  devek)ps  some  acciuaintance  with  ti'xtik's 
and  calls  for  knowleilge  of  design  and  color.  The  looms 
for  small  articles  may  l)e  of  the  simplest  construction,  such 


Fn..  I'J.    ( )lijt'cts  involviiii:-  siiupU.'  bodkbiinliiii:-  proccsst's.  ukuIc  l>y  cliildiTii 
ill  (Iradfs  lY  ami  V.    Tlu'  talilc  was  iiiailc  liy  a  |>ui)il  in  (iraili'  \'ll  1 


as  can  he  made  hy  the  [)Upils  tlu'inselves.  Clay  \\()rk  in 
tiles  and  simple  pottery  sha[)es  is  anothei-  \  aluahU'  mediuui 
of  ex[)ression  of  form. 

The  sort  of  work'ing  drawing  recjuircfl  in  making  patterns 
ac(|uaints  childi'en  with  this  means  of  ])nMlcteriiiiiiing  the 
shape  material  shall  tak'c.  and  is  the  liest  soil  of  pi('|)aral  ion 
for  later  working  drawings  w  hich  represeiii  t  hree  din h 'lis ions. 
Some  of  the  [)atterns  should  imoKc  diiiw  ing  to  seak'. 


'0 


KIXK   AM)    IXDISIUIAI.   AIMS 


The  o'lvat  valiu'  of  a  iclalively  tli(ir(iiii;li  inasU'ry  of  llic 
type  of  [)atteni  and  constniclioii  iiiNolvfd  in  a  i^ivcn  |ii'ol)l('in 
should  be  rcconni/.(.'<h  l''oi'  cxani})!!'.  to  make  one  or  two 
fUNchipes  is  a  sonicw  hat  formal  [)roceedinn'  and  arouses  oidy 
a  passing'  interest.  To  understand  the  eonstruetive  i)rol)leins 
in\dl\(Ml.  so  one  can  plan  workable  })atterns  and  [)roperlv 
eonstruct  en\(dopes  to  servt'  various  [)urposes.  from  those 
suited  to  hold  street-ear  tickets  to  portfolio  en^"eloJ)es  for 
school  work,  implies  much  practice.  I'o  do  this  a  child 
inust  y'ain  ability  to  see  the  linished  result  in  terms  of  pat- 
terns, and  to  know  readily  whetlu'r  the  pattern  will  work 
or  not.  Incidentally  he  will  have  taken  to  jjieces  a  numl)er 
of  envelopes  of  diffei'cnt  types  to  see  Jiow  they  are  ma(h\ 
and  often  will  have  exercised  his  iiiL;'enuity  in  modifyiiiL:,' 
tvpes  to  suit  his  purposes.  l"'amiliarity  with  processt's  will 
have  done  away  Avith  distracti\'e  technical  hindi'ances  and 
opeiie(l  the  way  for  a  child"s  powers  of  iiiN'cntion  to  ha\ c 
free  })lav  under  the  influence  of  the  st  inuilatinu'  realization 
that  he  has  skill  to  put  his  inventions  into  concrete  form. 
This  I'csult  seldom  comes  when  ideas  are  partially  assimi- 
late(l  and  pi-ocesscs  ai'c  unccrlainlv  performed. 

Simple  foi'uis  of  woodwork  which  can  be  done  most  1\'  with 
the  knife  are  well  adaple<l  to  these  ^•l■adcs.  and  L;'i\'e  some 
familiaritx'  with  the  material,  which  is  useful  as  an  intro- 
duction to  bench  work  in  up[)er  j^'radcs.  l''or  most  of  tiiis 
work,  thin  wood  which  can  casilv  be  prepared  in  the  ]'oUL;'h 
and  does  not   rei|uire  bench  tools,  is  sullicicnt. 

Amon;4'  the  projects  most  fi'e(|Uentl\'  sUL;'L;'e steel  by  the 
children  are  [x-ncil  sharpeners,  pen  and  pencil  boxes,  paper 
cutters,  brush  and  watci'-eup  holdei's.  sti'iiit;'  and  lishiiiL;-line 
winders,  windmills,  weather  \anes.  watei-  wheels,  ^'anics. 
mo(lels   lor  bridii'es.  derricks,  etc..  to\'  carts.  sle(ls.  boats  of 


(;i!Ai)i:s  i\-  AM)  \' 


'1 


various  kinds,  kitfs.  llyiiiL;-  inadiiiu's.  tops,  piii-liolc  cameras, 
ln\-  lidusfs  ami  tuniisliiiiLjs,  Ijird  lioiiscs,  elr. 

Ihs'hjii.  As  a  comrihutidU  towai'd  jiro^Tcss  in  ilic  two 
pliasi's  of  dfsij_;ii  Ix-fori'  dcscTiUrd, —  tirst.  tree  piacticc  in 
drroraiixc  ai  ranncnu'nls  for  liu'  sal^r  of  a[)[»r('cialion  of 
such  elements  of  formal  Ueautv  as  pleasinu'ly  related  spaces 
and  harmonious  forms,  and  sec(»ndly.  designs  for  specitic 
purposes  involvin^•  utilitarian  as  well  as  a'sthetic  considera- 
tions, —  (irades  I  \'  and  \'  can  easily  deV(do[)  skill  in  the 
followiuL;'  lines. 

1.  Moditication  of  natui'al  foi-ms  for  [)urposes  of  desin-n. 
If  a  child  stdects  a  form  which  he  has  alrcad\'  learned  to 
i-epreseni  and  draws  it  rapidly  and  repeatedly  from  memory, 
he  will  soon  re(luce  it  to  a  symhol  l)y  elimination  of  all  hut 
a  few  S(dected  lines.  This  symhol  will  tend  to  hecome  lixed 
h\-  repetition  and  will  ii^ain  a  certain  indi\  idualit  \  of  st\le 
as  liand\\  I'itinu'  does.  When  this  form  is  learned  so  that  it 
can  he  drawn  easil\-  fi-om  memory  it  can  he  used  as  a  unit 
for  I'cjietitiou  in  hordei's  and  also  ovei'  a  suiiace.  as.  foi- 
example,  a  wall  i)apci'  for  a  doll  s  house,  a  hook"  co\-er.  end 
papers  for  hooks,  etc.  Ahxlilication  of  tonus  for  decoi'ati\e 
treatment  nia\-  also  he  ohtained  hy  repeatiiiL;'  tliem  undci' 
the  limitations  imposed  l)y  ccriain  materials,  foi-  example. 
1)\'  sipnu'cd  papci'.  tlie  wea\'es  of  hasketr\'  and  fahrics.  cross- 
stitcli.  etc.  (  V\%.  1*0). 

-.  I'laniMUL;'  designs  foi'  specific  piirjioses.  'Tlic  most 
important  (picslioii  in  design  is  not  how  much  can  he  iii- 
cludcd  in  the  space  hut  what  is  the  hest  (list  I'ihill  ion  of 
appiopi'iiile  matci'iak  'I'liis  can  he  emphasized  at  lirst  hy 
furnishing-   the  elements    and    lea\  iii^-   !o  the    children    only 

I  he  pl'ohlcm  of  I  he  dispovil  ioll   of  1  hesc  ^i^ en   clciilcm  V.  \\  hicli 

at   I  his  a''c  is  (luitc  siiflicieiii . 


72 


F[XK  AND   IXDUSTIUAL   AIM'S 


For  example,  if  tlie  object  to  be  oi'uainented  is  a  mg.  a 
foldei'.  or  a  box  cover,  the  elements  of  decoration  may  widl 
l)e  limited  at  tirst  to  a  [)lain  band  for  a  border.    Tlie  pupils 


Fii..  -Id.     i;iril  fiii-ms  mhiiitfil  \n  iTuss-sI  il  cli  and  to  hiisl.rtrv 


call  cxperiiiieiil  by  iiic;iiis  of  splints  or  otlici'  material  wliicli 
will  represent  bands  ami  can  easil\-  be  moved  to  give  tlie 
elTccts  of  different   widths  of  iiiarij'ins  and  of  borih'r  lines. 


(iUADKS   IV  AND   V  (3 

Thev  can  thus  (Irtenniue  the  spac-iii;^'  \\liich  pnxhices  the 
most  [)leasiiiL;"  effect. 

Suppose  the  [)robleui  is  to  ehoose  the  spaeing-  for  two 
strips  aeross  a  rug"  which  is  to  he  woven.  If  tlie  cliil- 
dreu  cut  patterns  of  the  rug  and  place  two  sphnts  or 
pencils  or  strips  of  paper  across  to  re[)resent  tlu'  stri[)es, 
and  move  these  Ixick  and  forth  to  see  the  effect  of  diff'er- 
ent  s|)aeino-s,  experiments  have  shown  that  they  will  gener- 
allv  select  as  the  final  choice  an  arrangement  not  greatlv 


l-'ii..  "Jl.    Hdi'dtT  (Ifsiuiis  tor  nms  made  bv  difffrfut  arraimt'iiitMits  df  lines 


dift'ereiit  from  the  [)ro[)ortions  shown  in  Fig.  '21.  -which 
are   pleasing. 

^Vfter  children  can  space  a  simple  border  well,  the  com- 
l)inations  mav  he  nuuU'  mon'  varied  l)y  a  study  of  the  best 
effects  of  borders  com[)osed  of  two  or  three  lines  of  \  arying 
widths,  l.atei'  the  childi-en  should  experiment  ^\ith  the 
possibilities  of  moditications  of  the  bordi'rs  to  foiiii  decora- 
tive coi-nei's  or  accents  ( I''ig.  2'2). 

The  simple  decoration  ol Constructed  forms  and  tiie  spac- 
ing of  j)rinting  on  coNcrs  for  school  wdrk.  the  planinng  (d 
m;u-gins.  titles,  etc.  so  that  language.  sj)clling.  and  arithme- 
tic j);i[)crs  ma\-  present  a  good  appearance,  tui-nish  appid- 
priate  prol)lcnis.      In   all   these  cases  the   results  depend  tor 


ThE  liEEDLE  BOOK 


TME    KEV    RlACK 


o  o  o  o  o 


o  o  o  o 


1  o 

o 

C) 

O 

1 

l 


o  o  o  o 


3 


o  o  o  o  o 


3  [ 


o  o  o  o 


O  O  C)  o  o 


[ 


]  t: 


O  O  O  O  r 


:; 


L_ 

o 

o 

0              0 

F" 

o 

o 

^          o} 

Fii..  2l'.     liordcr  ilcsi-ns  with  simple  iiidililicnt  idiis  Inr  (■oi-iici'.- 
lIcpi'diluc.Ml  by  pcniiissidii  of  the  Si-liiml  Arts  l;,„,l, 


(iUADKS    IV  AM)  V 


iO 


tla'ireft'ect  ui)on  well-ivlaled  spaces.    Fig,  2o  shows  a  (U'sign 
for  a  niatcli  scratclu'r,  iiivolviiio'  \vell-cli()S(,'ii  pi'oportioiis. 

I)V  limiting  the  elements  wliieh  children  are  allowed  to 
use.  attenti(tii  is  concentrated  upon  an  attempt  to  make 
the  l)est  possible  ar- 
rangement of  what 
is  given.  The  abil- 
ity, which  is  ap[)arent 
at  about  this  age,  to 
a})preciate  good  spac- 
ing should  be  devel- 
o[)eil  from  year  to 
year  till  it  becomes 
unerringly  discrimi- 
nating, 'llioughtful 
ex})erimentat  ion  with 
a  few  elements  is 
an  effective  method 
of  (U'Veloping  this 
aljility. 

Children  are  read- 
ily iutt'i'estetl  ill  the 
collecting  of  designs 
similartothosew  liicli 
thev  themsehfs  are 
making.  'I'hese  col- 
lections are  always 
valuable  in  widening  the  accpiaiiilaiicc  of  the  children  with 
the;  general  use  of  design  and  in  presenting  sugut'sl  ions  for 
new  decoi'ali\'e  combinations.  l'"ig.  '24  shows  a  collection  of 
c()riicr  iiiodihcat  ions  of  borders,  gathci'cd  Iroiii  magazines, 
ad\crtisements.  etc. 


Fn..  2o.    Dt'siiiii    fur  a    niatc-li  sci'ati-licr.   iii- 
volviuL;'   \V(.'ll-cli()scii   i)riiii()riiniis   nt'    inar^iiiH 


76 


FIXE  AND  TXDrSTKIAL  ARTS 


In  the  foni'tli  year  in  school,  chilcU'en  can  ust'  water 
eohir  intelH<;"ently  for  matching  the  hnes  of  objects,  for 
h'arning  wliat  effects  the  different  [)ignients  })ro(hu'e  wlien 
nnxed,  and  for  representing  simple  color  effects.  They 
shonld  also  learn  how  to  make  even  Hat  washes  of  color 
over  given  areas.    Jn   addition  to  matching  colors,  special 


Fig.  24.    15nnk'i'  and  iMinuT  dcsiiiiis  colUTtcd  fr(.)in  iiiai^^aziiics  and 
advertisements 


training  in  discriminating  color  tones  may  he  given  hy  hav- 
ing pn[)ils  make,  in  water  color,  sam[)les  showing  sexcral 
deiinite  steps  in  values  of  etich  color  and  in  lines  intermedi- 
ate between  two  given  colors,  i^'or  example,  by  ])ainting 
a  patch  of  pnre  blue,  iuid  then  other  patches  of  blue  incretis- 
ingly  diluted,  and  still  others  a\  here  more  ami  more  black 
is  mixed  with  l)lue,  ;i  number  of  tones  will  be  obtained 
showing   the    range   of  values  of  blue   from   jaire   bhie  to 


GRADES    IV  AND  V 


77 


wliiio  and  also  to  black  tlirou^'li  sncc-essive  gradations.  \\v 
j)iacing  on  these  patches  a  small  circnlar  or  ohlong  pattern 
ahont  one  and  a  lialt'  inches  or  two  inches  across,  and  trac- 
ing aronnd  it  and  cntting  out  the  shapes,  a  number  of  col- 
'ored  sani|,)les  uidforni  in  size  will  ])e  secitred.  from  which 
children  can  select  a  fi'W,  perhaps  live,  which  uiake  e([md 
intcr\als  of  value  from  the  lightest  to  the  darkest.  These 
mounted  in  a  row  form  a  scale  of  values  of  the  given  color, 
(iraded  steps  of  hue  between  any  two  given  colors,  for 
exam[)le,  yellow  and  blue,  may  be  made  by  painting  iirst  a 
[)atch  of  i)ure  yellow  and  then  others,  each  with  more  bltie 
and  less  yellow,  till  pure  blue  is  reached,  liv  such  pi-actico 
childi'en  become  ac{puunte(l  with  the  behavior  of  colors  as 
they  ascend  toward  \\hitt'  or  descend  to\\ard  black  or  be- 
come modilied  by  other  colors.  They  also  (le\'elo[)  a  dis- 
crimination of  intervals  of  color  and  of  light  aiul  dark 
which  is  of  great  importance  in  problems  of  representation 
and  of  d(^sign. 

A  reasonable  standard  of  accomplishment  has  been  reached 
at  the  end  of  the  fifth  year  in  school.  wlu>n  to  the  increased 
facility  in  graphic  ex[)ressiou,  which  comes  from  continued 
geiu'ral  }»ractice  and  from  iuiensi\e  study  of  a  few  forms, 
has  been  addecl  detinite  training  in  (juick  pei'ception  of 
proportions  of  shapes  and  slants  of  liiu's,  so  that  the  mind 
is  able  to  I'ctain  the  image  of  the  object  and  compare  it  w  ilh 
that  of  the  i'e[)resentation  and  to  discern  the  corresponcU'iices 
and  (litTci-ences  ;  when  chihlreii  bring  to  their  const  ructive 
expression  such  ac(|uaintaiice  with  new  tools  as  gixcs  them 
new  niastei'v  of  matei'ial.  and  such  kn(»\\hM|ge  of  ])atterns 
as  enal)les  them  to  tiiiid<  out  processes  and  foi'eeast  results 
more  deliuiteh-  and  iiilcnigeiU  l\' :  and  when  the\'  liud  iu- 
ci'ca^ed  pleasure  in  w  ell-relalcil  spaces,  in  the  best   sohition 


78  FINK  AND   INDLSTKIAL  ARTS 

of  sim})le  problems  in  design,  and  in  the  greater  familiarity 
with  color  that  comes  from  continned  study,  aided  by  the 
addition  of  a  new  medium  of  expression  in  the  form  of 
water  color. 


CHAPTER  VI 


(iUADi:  VI 


Children  in  Grade  \\  have  generally  reached  a  stage  of 
niatnrity  where  they  ai'e  able  to  enjoy  working  with  sus- 
tained purpose  for  a  result  that  re(juires  a  eonsiderahle 
length  of  time  for  its  realization  and  that  demands  thonght- 
ful  and  somewhat  eom[)licate(l  planning.  They  take  [)ride 
in  attaining  a  good  standard  of  workmanslii[)  in  what  they 
produce,  and  hud  satisfaction  in  its  usi'fulness,  even  though 
that  usefulness  is  foi'  the  henelit  of  society  at  large  and 
not  directly  for  tlu'insclves.  An  a})preciation  of  the  beauty 
of  well-related  proportions  is  increasingly  api)arent.  ('hil- 
dren  at  this  age  will  occnpy  themselves  industriously  with 
problems  of  design  that  demand,  as  a  book  cover  does,  the 
experimental  arranging  of  title,  ornament,  and  other  ele- 
ments until  the  space  relations  are  most  pleasiug.  In 
representation  the  children  desire  a  knowledge  of  liow  to 
picture  objects  so  that  they  will  a[>[)ear  to  be  i-eal  and  con- 
vincing, or,  in  the  case  of  diagrams  or  drawings  rehuing  to 
the  sciences,  to  make  sncli  records  as  A\i]]  con\ey  irusi- 
worthv  iidormation. 

All  these  altitudes  towai'd  the  manual  arts  are  often 
e\ident  earlier  than  the  sixth  year  in  sciiool,  but  at  tliis 
time  the\-  furnish  sullicieiUly  strong  motiNcs  to  lead  the 
children  to  sustained  elTort  for  the  sake  of  so]\  lug  a  pi'oblcm 
in  rcpi-eseutat  ion  or  of  mastering  tools  ami  pi'ocesses  as  a. 
means  of  freedom  and  sureucss  in  execution. 


80  FIXE  AND   INDISTKIAL  AUTS 

Perhaps  the  most  signilieant  attitude  of  mind  character- 
istic of  children  in  (irade  VI  is  the  awakening-  of  the  desire 
to  be  connected  with  tlie  activities  of  tlie  outside  world 
and  to  do  something  worth  while.  T.,ife  in  the  country 
ot^'ers  abundant  occasions  for  such  occupations.  Each  child 
as  he  comes  to  suitable  age  can  assume  some  responsil)ility, 
the  meeting  of  which  contril)utes  directly  to  the  welfare 
of  the  family.  Tlie  garden,  the  woctdpilc,  tlie  poultry  yard, 
the  kitchen,  give  concrete  0})p()rtuiiities  in  which  the  rela- 
tions to  family  welfare  are  innnediate  and  e\ident. 

In  large  towns  and  cities  otitlets  for  activities  which  make 
the  boy  or  girl  a  responsible  contributing  factoi'  in  the  social 
system  are  not  so  obvious.  Products  are  bouglit  ready-iuade. 
Children  come  to  regard  things  as  the  equivalents  of  money, 
rather  than  of  labor  and  skill.  Moreover,  the  providing  of 
all  school  su[)plies  by  the  town  or  city  often  ju'eseiits,  with 
its  evident  advantages,  the  disadvantage  of  leading  children 
to  feel  tliat  the  mtmicipality  is  an  impersonal,  inexhaustible 
source  of  supply.  In  (irade  \'I  a[)pear  also  symptoms  of 
that  deflection  of  chihh'cn  from  schools  into  industries  which 
readies  its  height  at  the  end  of  (iraiU'  VIII  (see  Fig.  1. 
p.  l-5j.  Pile  fact  confronts  us  that  aiiout  two  thirds  of  all 
children  leave  school  by  the  end  of  the  eighth  grade  and  go 
to  work.  As  has  Ix'cn  already  [lointed  out,  the  scrit)usii('ss 
of  this  situation  is  found  in  the  fact  that  tliese  children  are 
too  young  to  enter  vocations  which  call  for  skill  or  offi-r 
opportunity  for  develo[)ment.  Such  occupations  as  those 
of  eri'and  Ijoys  and  cash  girls  are  typical  of  what  is  open 
to  childi'cn  in  the  cities.  The  majority  appear  to  drift 
alioiit  with  no  industrial  interests  or  vocational  outlook 
and  take  whatever  i»ays  l)cst.  They  spend  impoiianl  form- 
ative years  in  enijdovment  which  offers  slight  pi'ospccls  of 


(iKADK   VI 


81 


advancement.  This  experience  tends  to  prodnce  an  nnfor- 
tiinate  attitude  toward  work  as  sonietliinL;-  which  contains 
witliin  itself  no  interest  nor  scope  lor  reahzing  ambitions. 
A  small  })roportion  of  the  children  will  rise  in  spite  of  these 
conditions,  but  not  the  majority,  unless  vocational  interests 
and  right  attitudes  toward  work  are  awakened  before  they 
leave  school. 

The  educational  system,  with  its  high  schools  and  its 
growing  number  of  tec-hnical  schools,  oi'fers  increasingly  ex- 
cellent oitportunities  for  those  who  will  remain.  The  appal- 
lingly large  [)roportion  who  do  not  remain  makes  [)ert incut 
the  question  as  to  whether  schools  com[)k'tely  fulfill  their 
function  by  })roviding  advanced  opportunity  for  those  who 
will  take  it  :  or  whether,  in  addition,  elementary  schools 
ought  not  to  give  a  training  planned  detinitt'ly  to  awaken 
industrial  interests  and  to  promote  industrial  el'liciency  and 
thus  satisfy  the  desire  to  begin  to  do  something  worth  while 
and  to  have  a  part  in  the  world's  activities.  Tiie  linal  form 
which  this  training  will  take  nnist  be  determined  by  wide 
experimentation  ;  but  the  e\  i(U'nt  need  that  cliihh'cn  sliould 
have  a  part  in  some  \\()rk  which  develops  a  realization  of 
the  interde[)cndence  of  individuals  in  modern  civilization 
and  of  the  responsibility  of  each,  of  the  fact  that  wliat 
the  municipality  furnishes  is  produced  or  sup[)lied  liy  its 
individual  inhabitants,  and  of  the  meaning  of  industrial 
life,  gives  some  hints  of  the  lines  along  w  hich  cx[)criincnts 
should  be  tried. 

One  promising  suggestion  ])i'opose(l  to  meet  tliis  [)roblcm 
is  that  the  time  allotted  to  handwork  in  (ii'adcs  \'I.  \'  II.  and 
\TII  sluMild  be  increased  to  at  least  li\-e  hours  a  week,  the 
extra  time  being  taken  from  tlie  special  time  gi\-eii  to  draw- 
ing and  arithmetic,  thcs(.'  activities   being  embodied  in  the 


82  FIXE  AND  IXDUSTPvIAL  AIITS 

constructive  work,  and  that  a  part  of  this  time  Ik*  devoted 
to  making  material  which  the  city  or  town  uses  in  its  school- 
supply  department.  In  this  way  a  utilitarian  standard  of 
technical  excellence  would  Ije  furnished  and  at  the  same 
time  financial  complications  would  be  avoided.  Since  the 
city  can  buy  these  materials  in  the  market  at  any  time,  the 
projects  may  be  changed  fre(]iUMitly  enough  to  escape  a 
too  mechanical  routine.  Snch  work  would  frankly  uiidei'- 
take  the  production  of  articles  in  (luantity.  and  l)y  such 
iiulustrial  methods  as  division  of  labor  and  oi'gani/.ation 
of  a  system  by  which  poor  work  might  be  traced  to  its 
producer. 

Wliile  such  work  should  never  interfere  ^\•ith  domestic 
science  and  household  art  for  girls,  and  may  not  soon  super- 
sede what  is  now  known  as  manual  training  f(»r  boys,  it  may 
at  least  share  the  time  with  the  latter,  and  it  possesses  certain 
important  educational  advantages.  For  example,  su[)[)osing 
the  project  to  be  the  supi)lying  of  classes  with  portfolios  or 
sketchbooks:  if  each  boy  in  the  class  compk-tes  one,  and 
then  the  class  is  dixided  into  groups  and  each  group  \k'V- 
forms  a  single  o[)eration.  the  great  economy  in  time  and 
material  and  the  cousecjuent  increase  in  producing  power 
are  at  once  evident.  These  are  important  items  in  indus- 
trial education.  ^b)reovei',  the  repetition  of  a  process,  if  not 
too  long  continued,  instead  of  dulling  the  mind,  awakens  it 
to  invent  devices  for  performing  these  processes  more  ra[)- 
idly  and  accurately.  All  danger  of  automatic  routine  may 
be  avoided  by  the  use  of  good  judgment  as  to  A\hen  the 
pi'ocess  sliall  l)e  changed. 

The  interest  shown  by  such  a  class  ^\■hen  the  school- 
supply  team  calls  to  take  the  product  has  pro\  (m1  tliat  the 
motive  of  personal  ownership  is  not  necessary  at  this  age  as 


(iUADK   ^'I  80 

an  inducement  to  do  o'ood  work.^  These  eontributions  made 
by  tlie  [)Ui)ils  to  the  system  which  is  oivino-  so  mucli  to  them 
readily  awaken  a  new  a[)preciation  of  school  material  in  i;'en- 
eral  and  of  all  public  property  and  its  relation  to  individuals. 
Work  such  as  this  may  be  an  important  factor  in  ci\ic  edu- 
cation for  all,  while  to  the  \)o\  who  goes  cai'ly  into  indus- 
trial employment  it  gives  a  realization  that  any  process  to 
which  he  is  assigned  is  part  of  a  whole.  'I'liis  realization  is 
likely  to  awaken  a  demand  on  his  part  to  know  and  master 
the  whole.  It  is  not  unreasonable  to  ho[)c>  that  such  '  work 
teaching,"  which  awakens  interest  in  effect Inc  ways  of  doing 
things,  may  bring  discontent  with  unskilled  occu[)ations  and 
a  desire  for  moi-e  thorough  industrial  and  technical  training. 

It  is  not  unlikely  that  future  ex[)erimcuts  w  ill  pi-ove  that 
where  a  suitable  amount  of  time  in  elementai'V  schools  is 
devoted  to  gaining  experii'Uce  with  industrial  methods 
applied  to  appropriate  problems  which  contribute  to  the 
good  of  the  conuuonwealth,  the  results,  in  terms  of  appre- 
ciation of  the  relation  of  material  products  to  human  skill 
and  ei'fort,  will  not  only  be  of  practical  value  to  a  part  of 
the  [)o[)ulation  hut  will  be  also  an  element  of  broad  culture 
for  all,  whatever  their  vocations  may  be. 

]n  coniu'ction  with  the  regular  school  program  the  follow- 
ing suggestions  for  work  in  re[)resentation,  consti'uction, 
an<l  design  emphasize  the  j)hases  which  the  abilities  of  the 
children  seem  to  indicate  as  [)articularly  a[)[)ropriale  to 
(irade  \'I. 

lii-j>rrKi'n1i(tii>n.  'I'he  use  of  drawing  as  a  means  of  plain 
desci-i[)tion  should  c(»ntiuue  in  connection  wit  h  ot  her  school 

1  Tlicsi'  consiclcratiiiiis  arc  liascd  lai'-dy  nii  (he  ic-iilis  dI'  cNiifriiiiciils 
trifil  ill  I5(.si(jii  hy  rrufcsMir  Frank  M .  I.ca\in  ami  (Icsrrilicil  in  detail  liy 
liini  in  Uic  Mdnaul  Tniinin^i  Miujuziiic  I'm- .June,  l'.»()S. 


84  FINK   AND    IXDrsTUlAI.   AUI'S 

subjects.  On  the  merely  teeliiiical  side  the  work  of  (Trades 
jy  and  A"  should  have  developed  a  habit  of  keen  observa- 
tion and  correct  representation  of  relative  proportions  and 
slants  of  lines  in  the  objects  drawn.  That  of  (jrade  W 
should  continue  delinitely  along'  these  lines  l)y  develo})- 
ing  a  habit  of  thinking  out  the  directions  and  limits  of 
lines  before  they  are  drawn,  by  carrying  the  brush  or 
pencil  over  the  paper  experimentally  hi  the  path  the  line 
is  to  take. 

In  this  grade  a  greater  differentiation  in  styles  of  draw- 
ing is  called  for  to  meet  different  needs.  Each  subject  will 
readilv  suggest  the  methods  of  drawing  which  are  most 
appropriate.  For  example,  nuq)s  and  routes  call  for  plain 
explanatorv  drawing  in  which  correct  j)rop()rtions  are  a 
necessary  framework  with  which  no  freedom  can  l)e  taken. 
Children  readily  ap[)reciate  this  fact  and  are  interested  to 
draw  routes  which  a  stranger  might  depend  upon  in  linding 
his  way  about  town.  The  following  (piotation  from  a  school 
paper  describes  a  method  of  interpreting  relative  proportions 
in  terms  of  a  diagram  (Fig.  2oj). 

A\'i'  linpc  yoii  will  111-  ])lcascil  with  (Uii-  jilaiis  (if  Historical  llox- 
liiirv.  A\'c  lia\"c  liail  ,L;rcat  fiiii  iiiakiiiL;'  thciii.  "\\'c  walkcil  to  the  places 
aii<l  coiiiitcd  our  steps  and  wi'oti'  down  on  a  jiiccc  of  jiapcr  how  many 

steps  it  was  to  each  jilacf.    Then  .Miss  hfl[ii'(l  ns  plan  it  out  on 

a  seal*.'  of  270  steps  to  an  inch.  All  the  places  arc-  within  ten  minutes' 
walk  of  the  scliool. 

Accurate  representation  of  a  different  sort  is  called  for 
when  drawing  is  used  in  connection  with  ruiture  study. 
In  this  case  another  element  enters  in,  because  plant  forms 
iiiN'olve  pro[)orlioiis  and  shapes  which  present  not  only 
facts  of  structure  btit  also  elements  of  beautv  in  the  sha[)es 
w  hich  the  stnu'tui'c  assumes.    Excpiisite  representations  of 


(.HADK   VI 


8.) 


H15T0T?lCAL  RCxBLRX 

-PY  FRAnH    BENSON. 


I  SITE  OP  OLD  F  OftT  b  CUtMtY  S:i\:Jl. 
■}  ^  E  HALE  hC  ySE  S'  WA  R?^  L  r\ -BTRTH  Pi /\.  t 
'-    I  \.  iOT    S (k     -.  HURJ  H     ;0    N  L  MR  0  f  r.  oi  •  F. 


Fii,.  :!").    A  chilirs  oi'iiziiia!  iiiaji 

plant  sli<ii)('S  appear  wlicii  tlic  jilaul  is  held  in  llic  siiii- 
liLi'lit  so  as  to  tlirnw  its  sliadow  on  a  [)ifcc  ot  papci-  and 
tlif  cliilil  stands  wlici-c  lie  can  sec  only  the  shadow,  lie 
linds  the  sti-nctui'c  of  stems,  tlie  shapes  of  lai'^e  masses, 
the  loreshoi'teiiin;4'  of  leaxcs  and  llowers,  and  tiie  (Kdieaey  ot 


86 


FIX1-:  AX])   IXDl'STKIAL  ARTS 


grasses  and  thistledown  translated  into  terms  of  ])lack  and 
white.  E(|ually  perfect  records  may  be  made  by  [)lacing 
plant  forms  n[)on  blue-print  paper  and  exposing  them  in 
a  pnnting  frame  to  the  sun.  The  [)lant  prints  its  shape 
upon  the  paper  in   a  few  minutes  and  the   image  may  Ix; 


Fig.  20.    I'rints  from  iiluiit  forin.s 


made  permanent  l)y  wasliing  in  water  (Fig.  2*')).  These 
interpi'etations  are  often  a  greater  incentive  to  rei)reseuta- 
tion  of  beautiful  details  tlian  the  l)est  Yerl)al  instruction, 
lii'ush  and  ink  give  results  that  look  like  shadows,  and  tiie 
child  is  stimulated  by  tliis  evident  similarity  in  effect  to 
try  to  e(|ual  the  perfection  of  the  actual  shadow  or  print 
of  the  plant  he  is  studying  (Fig.  27). 


(HIADK  VI 


87 


With  water  color  the  ehildreu  can  learn  to  match  the 
c-(»lors  of  ohjeets  and  diseriiuinate  hetwecn  tones  of  <M»l(ir, 
as,  for  example,  the  greens  of  the  U})[)er  and  the  nnder 
side  of  leaves. 

Another  snl)ject  appropriate  to  (Jrade  \  \  is  the  study  of 
a  few  simple  objects  to  show  how  each  appears  in  several 
positions;  ft)r  example,  a  leaf  or  flower  lield  at  various  an- 
gles (Fig-  -8),  or  a  toy  or  implement  tttrned  successively 


m 


f 
/ 

Fig.  '2'.    IJrusli  tlrawinus  (if  plants 

in  a  nund)er  of  directions.    A  topic  sttch  as  this  presents  a 
detinite  })rol)lem  for  solution. 

Cliildren  of  this  age  usually  make  small  diawings  wlien 
following  their  own  inclinations,  while  nuicli  time  is  spent 
by  instructors  in  the  attempt  to  lead  them  to  (haw  lai'ge. 
l>efore  regar<ling  as  wholly  a  fault  the  natui'al  lendenc\  to 
make  somewhat  conti'acted  drawings,  ii  is  well  to  consider 
the  small  size  of  a  gi'cat  pro[)oi'tion  of  the  trial  sketches  hy 
men  who  drew  with  much  exj)rcssioiu  as  did  .1.  I'\  .Millet, 
.lolin  La  I-'arge,  and  many  of  llie  early  Italian  masters,  in 
many  cases  the  liiuil  ])ictures  a])pear  to  have  been  enlarged 
from  tlu'  lirst  small  sketches. 


FIXE  AND  INDUSTllIAL  ARTS 


Fi<:.  28.    Drawiiitis  (if  leaves  at  dilYereiit  angles 


The  need  of  matliematical  conipavisoii  of  ])roportioiis  is 
greatly  increased  whh  llie  iiicreast'd  size  of  tlie  drawing. 
When  the  (h'awiiig  is  small  the  eye  sees  it  as  a  whole  and 
makes    eompaiisons    readily.    'Idie    e\('    seems   to    ti'anslate 


GRADE  VI 


89 


shapes  most  easily  and  directly  when  the  size  of  the  draw- 
ing approaches  that  whieh  wotild  resnlt  it"  a  transparent 
plane  were  held  between  the  eye  and  the  object,  at  the 
same  distance  from  the  eye  as  was  the  paper  when  the  dra\\  - 
ing  was  made,  and  the  object  traced  tipon  the  plane.  I'nder 
these  circnmstances  it  is  not  necessary  to  change  the  scale 
of  the  visual  impression. 

Much  earnest  mental  effort  as  well  as  manual  practice  is 
necessary  if  children  learn  to  draw  with  any  degree  of  cor- 
rectness. Careless  drawing  is  easy,  but  serves  no  valuable 
utilitarian  or  lesthetic  end,  and.  if  allowed,  begets  a  certain 
contempt  for  the  subject.  Correct  drawing  is  difticult  of 
attaimnent  and  the  effort  is  more  than  [)lay,  but  if  the  work 
is  well  organized  and  undertaken  in  i-arnest,  truthful  de- 
lineation grows  to  be  a  habit.  This  habit  should  l)e  estab- 
lished early.  Children  who  learn  to  represent  things  as 
they  are,  gain  a  knowledge  of  form  which  enables  them  to 
justify  their  courage  when  they  venture  to  alter  the  actual 
to  conform  to  their  ideal.  Attempts  at  [)octic  expi'ession 
in  half-mastered  terms  ai'c  best't  with  dilhculties. 

('o/isfrurtiiiif.  A  desire  to  })roduce  things  which  have  a 
definite  use,  and  a  willingness  to  s[)end  time  mastering  new 
tt)ols  so  that  they  may  be  titilized  as  an  added  means  of 
dealing  w  ilh  material,  are  characteristic  of  this  grade.  The 
making  of  sim[)le  mechanical  ap[)aralus,  such  as  is  imolved 
in  the  manufacture  of  certain  toys,  and  tlie  i)roduclion  of 
things  that  are  of  evident  use  in  the  school  and  home  are 
especially  a[»pi'o[)riale  to  this  grade. 

In  plamiing  courses  in  woodworking,  (irade  \  I,  in  most 
locaHties.  seems  to  be  the  suital)]e  place  for  introihu'ing 
ciiil(h-en  to  bench  work.  This  iiiNoKcs  the  use  of  tools 
whicii   demand   streiigtii   and   skill,   and    should    come  at   a 


90  FIXE  AND  IXDl'STRIAL  ARTS 

time  when  the  .stiimihis  of  new  material  and  of  the  means 
of  handling  it  is  especially  effective. 

Two  ways  of  organizing  woodwork  have  been  evident 
(hiring  the  history  of  mannal  traiidng.  One  prescribes  a 
series  of  forms  invohing  constrnctive  elements  and  proc- 
esses so  arranged  that  there  is  a  graded  progression  in 
diilicnlty  and  com[)lexity.  In  some  cases  the  problems  are 
isolated  parts  of  constrnction,  given  for  the  pnrpose  of  de- 
velophig  technique  without  regard  to  any  use  to  which  the 
result  shall  be  })ut,  as  in  the  Russian  system.  In  other 
cases  the  results  are  objects  which  will  be  of  use,  but  are 
so  chosen  as  to  insure  a  logical  progress  in  tlie  order  of 
tools  and  processes  involved. 

I'he  other  method  of  organizing  ^\'()od\\■ork  is  based  on  the 
theory  that  a  constructive  problem  in  its  entirety  involves 
three  steps.  First,  a  choice  is  madi*  of  an  object  suggested 
by  a  need  for  it,  so  definite  in  character  that  the  conditions 
furnish  the  workt-r  with  a  means  of  reasoning  out  just 
what  the  size,  form,  and  construction  of  the  object  should 
l)e  in  order  l)est  to  fulHU  the  needs  of  the  case.  For  ex- 
ample, if  the  object  is  a  bii'd  liouse,  its  shape,  the  size  of 
the  door,  and  other  details  will  l)e  determined  detiiiitely 
bv  knowing  the  hal)its  and  size  of  the  bii'd  for  which  it 
is  to  be  built  and  the  locality  in  A\'hich  it  is  to  l)e  ]»laeed. 
Secondly,  after  ideas  of  the  ol)ject  in  its  com[)leted  form 
are  clearly  defuied.  the  most  litting  method  of  construc- 
tion is  reasoned  <)ut  and  patterns  or  working  drawings 
are  made  wliich  sho^\■  the  number  of  })arts  net'ded  and 
their  exact  shape  and  size.  In  this  way  tlie  greater  part  of 
the  constructive  thiidciiig  is  dout'  l)eforehand  in  terms  of 
drawings  and  })atterns,  so  that  ^\■ork  in  material  may  be 
pi'cdetermined    and   not   experimental.    Thirdly,    the   tools 


GKADK  VI  91 

neecknl  and  the  knowledge  of  how  to  use  them  .should  be 
provided  as  neeessity  arises. 

Woodwork  with  beneh  tools  is  in  itself  so  interesting, 
and  at  the  same  time  so  suggestive  of  world  aetivities,  that 
however  it  may  be  presented,  there  is  seldom  any  laek  of 
enthusiasm  on  the  part  of  the  ehildren.  In  fact,  every 
system  of  woodwork  cites  as  testimony  to  its  suitability 
the  ofreat  interest  it  arouses  in  the  children. 

Children  trained  by  the  iirst  method  are  likely  to  develop 
a  dehnite  consciousness  of  ability  to  deal  with  material  and 
a  pride  in  excellent  construction,  but  tend  to  be  somewhat 
lacking  in  power  to  plan  and  to  design,  (ienerally  the  ma- 
jority of  a  given  class  produce  good  work.  Those  trained 
by  the  second  method  have  excellent  opportunity  to  develop 
judgment  and  al)ility  to  plan  how  conditions  may  be  met, 
but  often  the  majority  of  a  given  class  fail  in  the  technical 
skill  required  to  put  their  ideas  into  creditable  material  form. 
In  actual  experience  elementary-school  pupils  can  seldom 
plan  perfectly  l)eforehand,  and  need  some  experimentation 
with  material,  which  often  modifies  the  Iirst  plans.  Usually 
only  a  few  produce  good  results. 

In  })i-actice  a  combination  of  the  two  methods  is  gen- 
erally followed.  The  children  begin  with  given  models  by 
means  of  which  the  class  can  be  taught  as  a  whole,  and 
attain  a  dcgi'cc  of  nuistery  of  certain  tools.  After  a  year 
or  two  those  who  show  sui'licient  skill  to  justify  uiulei'tak- 
ing  indi\i(lual  [)rojects  ai'c  allowed  to  do  so.  l-'ixMpu'ntly 
the  technical  abiHlN'  developed,  leads  the  children  to  under- 
take j)rojecis  of  theii'  own  oulside  of  school  liours.  l>y 
means  of  chiss  lessons  a  standard  of  workmansliip  is  main- 
tained, and  the  desire  to  [)ro(hice  an  indeix'iident  ])iece 
of  work   acts  as  a  strong  stimuhis.    A   class   model,  while 


92 


FIXE  AND  IXDl'STIJIAL  ARTS 


reciuiriiig  the  siiine  processes  of  all  pii})ils,  need  not  resnlt  in 
nieclianieal  nniformity.  Fiij,'.  2U  shows  the  variety  of  design 
availal)le  in  so  eonniKjn  a  stock  model  as  the  pen  tray. 

With  the  hitrodnctif)n  of  bench  tools  it  is  important  to 
realize  that  a  somewhat  complete  mastery  of  one  implement 
and  })rocess  aftei'  another  is  ultimately  necessary  tr)  any 


Fii,.  21).    A  st_'t  nf  (Icsimis  fnr  pen  trays 

frrcdom  of  expression.  In  his  consideration  of  the  interest 
of  childmi  in  the  practical  ontcome  of  their  iiidixidnal 
])rojects.  the  instructor  should  not  forget  that  other  iulerest 
which  discovers  itself  to  tlie  person  wIk)  liuds  his  hand  ad- 
justing itself  to  a  tool  ^\•llich  is  l)ecC)miug  increasingly  obi'- 
dieut.  Tliis  new  sensation  often  leads  a  hoy  to  continue 
planing  a  piece  of  wood  till  he  lias  foi'gotten  its  use  and 
has  gone  past  the  line,  in  the  pleasure  of  feeling  the  l)lade 


(iiiADK  vr 


93 


cut  with  perfect  evenness.  The  eonti'ihution  to  enjoyment 
and  elheiency  nui<U'  hy  this  satisfaction  in  complete  mastery 
of  a  process  shonld  not  be  nnderestimateiL 

In  this  <4ra(U' ;_;'irls  shouUl  n'ain  some  systematic  accpuiint- 
ance  with  one  or  hotli  of  the  characteristic  activities  of 
American  households,  cooking  and  sewing.  The  children 
are  old  enongh  to  nnderstand  and  feel  that  they  are  genu- 
inely hel[>fnl  in  some  of  the  simi)ler  forms  of  cooking,  such 
as  the  preparation  of  cereals  and  certain  vegetables,  etc. : 
and  in  the  related  household  activities,  such  as  the  use  of 
the  kitchen  e<|uii)ment,  the  i)roper  setting  and  clearing  of 
the  tabic,  the  washing  of  dishes,  and  the  care  of  rooms.  In 
sewing  they  may  bi'  taught  simple  stitches,  useful  and  or- 
namental, the  method  of  holding  the  cloth,  and  the  use  of 
measurements.  simi)le  patterns,  and  sketches.  Doll's  clothes 
and  the  simpler  processes  in  garments  will  offer  o[)portunity 
to  use  this  knowledge.  The  constructive  work  for  both 
bovs  and  girls  should  bi'ing  them  into  sym[)atlietic  contact 
with  industries  in  the  home  and  neighborhood. 

J)i's/(/ii.  The  two  phases  of  design  before  described,  namelv. 
that  of  free  practice  with  decorative  forms  and  that  of  plan- 
ning objects  to  meet  gi\'en  conditions,  should  contimu'. 
One  of  the  important  contributions  which  free  practice 
may  make  is  the  interpretation  of  forms  into  arrangements 
of  bilateral  symmetry.  This  is  one  <»f  the  simplest  tv[)es  of 
l)alance  and  one  which  children  readily  apj-reciate. 

Children  at  this  age  easily  develop  considerable  facilitv 
in  drawing  simple  units  at  the  board  with  both  hands  at 
the  same  time.  After  a  little  practice  both  hands  move 
apparently  to  one  impulse,  though  the  action  of  the  left 
hand  is  the  i'e\ci-sc  of  that  of  the  right.  When  a  form 
has  liceu   learned   it   can   be  drawn   icadih'  in  this  \\a\.  and 


94 


FIXE   AND   IXDUSTKIAL  ARTS 


occasional  practice  of  this  sort  gives  the  cliildreii  a  feeling 
of  bilateral  l)alance  more  vivid  than  can  be  obtained  when 
the  dra\\ing  of  l)oth  sides  is  made  with  one  hand.  The 
possibilities  of  mechanical  dtiplication  in  I'evei'se  are  many. 
Some  of  them,  if  used  \\'ith  a  realization  of  their  limitations, 
serve  to  stinnilate  experimentation  and  to  snggest  new 
ideas.  Foi-  example,  the  <U'corative  effect  of  dnplicating 
forms  in  reverse,  even  those  that  are  less  often  studied  for 
decorative  possibilities,  as  handwriting,  may  1)e  seen  l)v 
making  the  foi'm  \\ith  a  soft  pencil  and  then  folding  the 
paper  over  the  form  and  rul)bing  it.  'I'he  image  ^\ill  be 
transferred  faintly  and  needs  oidy  the  strt'ngihening  of  the 
lines  to  complete  the  balance.  Folding  paper  o\'er  a  blot 
of  ink  and  pressing  it  \\ill  often  produce  interesting  bilat- 
eral forms,  the  suggestions  of  \\hich  may  be  (level(»ped 
and  ])erfected.  In  genei'al  these  fortuitous  pi'oductions  are 
valuable  only  as  occasional  stinuilations. 

In  the  second  field  of  design  the  most  valuable  opportu- 
nities are  geut'i'ally  found  in  couiu'ctiou  \\itli  the  })rojt'cts 
of  constructive  ^\■ork  and  of  the  household  arts.  .As  in 
(irade  W  the  best  I'csults  in  decoration  are  usually  obtained 
1)\-  limiting  a  jiroblem  to  the  most  [)leasing  dis[)osili()n  of  a 
few  elements.  At  this  age  an  a]»peal  may  be  made  directh' 
to  a  feeling  of  ;eslhetic  pleasure.  'I'lu'  (|Uestiou,  "  Which 
looks  best?"  generally  calls  forth  thoughtful  replies.  (Jood 
judgment  in  the  matter  of  ai'cas  and  ri'lative  pi'opoi'tions 
ap})ears  to  be  developed  most  ra})idly  by  nuich  experinieii- 
tation  ill  placing  the  elements  of  design  to  determine  what 
arrangcnieiil  [)roduces  the  gi'eatcst  satisfaction.  For  exam- 
j)lc,  in  j)laniiiiig  the  i)rintiiig  on  a  book  cover,  such  steps  as 
the  following  make  it  certain  that  the  child  thinks  out  the 
problem  tirst  in  terms  of  spatial  relations. 


(;i;ai)i-:  vr 


95 


Place  the  ruler  or  pencil  across  the  sliect  of  pai)er  w  hicli 
is  to  he  the  cover  and  move  it  n[)  and  down  to  deterniini' 
where  the  title  will  look  hest  (  FIl;'.  ■><>,  .1).  Mark  tlie  posi- 
tion chosen  and  place  two  pencils  across  this  area.  Moxc 
them  toward  and  away  from  the  center  till  the  inclosed 
space  seems  tlie  hest  lenn'th  for  the  title  (Fig-  ■>'*,  l>). 
Modify  the  space  so  that  the  letters  will  he  of  a  suitahle 
height,   and   print    the    title  to  lill   the   I'cctangle   exactly. ^ 


A  3 

Fk..  ;!(!.    Method  of  choosiiin'  tlit;  most  j)lt'asiini-  position  tor  a,  coNcr  title 

Whei'c  the  desio-n  eml)odies  two  elements,  ;is  a  title  and 
monoo-rani,  or  adds  a  third,  as  a  horder,  the  experiments 
may  he  carried  on  easily  hy  means  of  splints  and  shapes 
of  pajx-r. 

'Idle  cause  of  pleasure  ill  those  dis|)osit ions  of  the  (de- 
ments which  trained  jiidoiuciil  calls  o()()(l  ap|)cars  to  lie  in 
the  consistent  rtdatioii  <»l  iiicasurcs.  ( '(Uiihiiiat  ions  which 
are   cntir(dv    sat  isfactors'    can    he   approx  iiiiat(d\    calculated 

'  I-"or  siiiincslioiis  as  to  printing  williiii  a  i;i\(;ii  spare,  see  l'"ii;.  40,  ji.  l^.'J. 


96  FIXE  AND   INDrsTRIAL  ARTS 

mathematically.  The  method  of  calculation,  althouo-h  of 
much  interest  to  the  scientist,  appears  to  be  of  no  value  in 
developing  [esthetic  appreciation  in  children.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  method  which  consists  in  the  comparison  and  con- 
templation of  tentative  arrano-ements  usually  results  in  a 
ready  response  in  terms  of  pleasure  when  a  line  adjustment 
of  spaces  is  ol)tained.  'Jdie  aptitude  of  the  majority  of  chil- 
dren for  innnediate  })erception,  of  pleasinu-  arrangements, 
when  the  terms  of  the  })roblem  are  wisely  selected  and 
defined,  is  an  encouragement  to  the  teacher  who  seeks  to 
develo})  good  taste  hi  matters  of  design. 

Conti)uied  use  of  water  color  should  develop  ability  to 
discriminate  colors  more  accurately.  'J'he  children  should 
learn  to  mix  paints  so  as  t(^  match  any  given  sample  or 
produce  any  desired  color.  In  addition  to  matching  colors, 
a  special  study  of  color  intensities  will  aid  discrimination. 
This  may  be  carried  on  by  Inning  the  cliildi'cn  select  some 
color,  for  example,  blue,  and  paint  a  spot  of  as  intense  a 
blue  as  the  paints  will  [)roduce,  and  another  spot  of  gray 
which  is  the  same  value  as  the  blue,  that  is,  neither  lighter 
]ior  darker,  but  such  a  gray  as  would  be  obtained  by  plio- 
tographing  the  l)lue  with  a  plate  that  rendere(l  the  colors 
in  their  true  relative  \alue>..  'i'liey  may  then  paint  tither 
spots,  each  time  mixing  an  increasing  amount  of  gi'av  with 
the  blue,  so  that  tlie  spots  approach  gray  without  becom- 
ing lighter  or  darker,  i'^i-om  these  spots  three  niav  be 
selected,  which,  with  the  blue  and  gray,  form  a  sei'ies  of 
five  c(|ually  graded  steps  of  intensity.  In  a  similar  manner 
charts  of  different  intensities  of  other  spectrum  colors  may 
be  made.  These  charts  will  aid  in  disci'iniinating  the  rela- 
tive intensity  of  colors  in  nature  which  the  children  are 
attempthig  t<j  match. 


(iKADK   VI 


A  reasona])le  standanl  of  aecdinplisliment  lias  l)eeu 
reached  at  the  end  of  the  sixtli  year,  if  drawiiis;'  has  grown 
to  l)e  more  eorreet  and  expressive  hecanse  each  Hne  is 
thoughtftilly  (h'awn  and  form  is  ])etter  iindersidod  :  if  rt'p- 
resentations  of  ol)jefts  show  moi-e  adecpuitely  the  charac- 
teristics, proportions,  and  positions  of  these  ol)jects;  and 
if  the  chil(h-en  have  become  familiar  with  the  nse  of  the 
more  connnon  indnstrial  tools  and  have  hegnii  to  make 
things  which  a})[H'al  to  them  as  worth  while  as  a  contrihn- 
tion  to  general  or  individnal  needs.  In  design  an  important 
end  has  been  achieved  if  they  are  able  to  i)lan  simple  con- 
strnctive  problems  so  that  the  I'csuhs  are  not  only  adecpiate 
to  the  j)nrpose  bnt  pleasing  in  general  [)roi)ortions,  if  they 
have  gaint'd  an  ac(piaintance  with  some  of  the  decorative 
possil)ilities  of  bilaterally  synnnetrical  arrangements,  and 
also  if  al)ility  to  match  colors  and  to  discriminate  between 
different  tones  is  increased. 


CHAPTER   VIT 
(irjADKS  A'll  AND  VIII 

Instructors  in  manual  arts  duriiiL;'  tlic  earlier  school  years 
should  make  certain  that  the  children  \\  ho  reach  (irades 
VII  and  Vlll  have  already  mastered  ct-rtain  finidamental 
processes  and  have  overcome  elementary  technical  diilicul- 
ties.  The  chil<lren  -will  then  have  contidence  and  skill  to 
undertake  [)rojects  appropriate  to  their  widening-  interests, 
and  will  possess  a  stinnilating  sense  of  ability  to  think  out 
the  solutic)ns  and  use  materials  and  implements  to  work 
out  the  results. 

In  these  grades  children  show  an  interest  in  crmcentrating 
whatever  knowledge  they  can  gather  and  all  the  skill  they 
can  command  u})on  hicreasingly  specific  pi'ohlems.  This 
leads  to  a  (dose  study  of  conditions  and  often  to  observation 
of  the  ways  employed  by  skille(l  Morkei's.  and  it  results  in 
careful  selection  from  among  many  possible  nu'thods  and 
materials,  of  those  most  suitable  to  the  j)articular  end  in 
view.  For  example,  in  constructive  or  diagrannnatic  draw- 
ing, children  who  have  previously  learned  to  sketch  pat- 
terns and  draw  to  scale  are  now  interested  in  seeing  how 
such  drawings  are  used  in  actual  indnsti'ial  processes,  and 
what  are  the  de\iccs  and  coiiNentions  emphyed  to  illus- 
trate particular  details  and  characteristics.  In  I'cpresenta- 
tion  children  are  intei'csted  in  working  out  the  best  means 
iov  portraying  particular  effects  and  in  trying  the  results 
of  different  sorts  of  technicpie.    Uhey  will  experiment  with 

98 


(iRADKS   VII    AM)   VIII 


99 


i\  particular  l(»[)ir,  for  cxainpU'.  rfctani^'ular  solidity,  and 
Icarii  how  to  i-('[)resi'iit  rcctaiimilar  forms  in  any  position 
and  to  draw  tlieni  from  imaq-ination  so  that  tlifv  appear 
well  I'onstructed.  In  woodwork,  agriculture,  sewiuL;',  cook- 
inn\  etc..  these  pui)ils  show  a  similar  I'cadiuess  to  inider- 
lake  individual  [)rojects  ^\■llich  necessitate  knowledt^-e.  skill, 
and  persistency,  and  they  dis[)lay  enthusiasm  in  seekino- 
data  regardino-  ihc  \\-ork  and  in  perfecting!,'  their  skill  in  its 
processes. 

The  technical  elements  of  the  work  in  these  o'rades  as 
well  as  its  prevocational  as[n'ct  render  instruction  by  s[)ecial 
teachers  more  necessary  than  in  previous  years. 

The  following"  suggestions  relati'  to  phases  mIucIi  seem 
especially  \\'orth  emphasizing. 

Hcj>rcsf)if((ti<>)i.  The  most  valuable  work  in  these  grades 
api)ears  to  be  a  continuation  of  the  conunou  use  of  di'aw- 
ing  as  a  means  of  ex[»lanation  and  (h-sciiption,  and  also 
a  somewhat  thorough  training  in  re[)resenting  the  geo- 
metric solidity  of  rectangular  and  cur\ilinear  objects  of 
three  dimensions  and  the  l)eaiity  of  structure  and  slia[)e 
of  natural  forms. 

The  descri[)ti\'e  drawing  Mill  show  the  extent  to  which 
di'awing  has  become  a  practical  means  of  exi)ression.  Skill 
in  this  coii\-ersational  use  of  drawing  does  not  come  from 
slowlv  and  carefullv  tinished  work.  It  is  gaineil  (iiil\-  b\- 
piactice  in  lajiid  sketching.  ( )n  the  other  hand,  rapid 
(U'scii[)tive  drawing  tends  to  become  superlicial  uidess 
supplemente(l  ])y  some  seiious  and  painstaking  representa- 
tion. .Memory  and  iniaginati\»'  diawing  should  recei\'e 
considei'ation,  as  abilit\  in  this  line  is  necessar\'  to  read\ 
expression  of  ich'as.  In  the  ease  of  some  children,  imagina- 
tive drawing  readily  takes  the  form  of  [)iclorial  comj)osit  ions. 


100  FIXJ-:  AND   IXJ)rsTrvIAL  ARTS 

wliile  with  otliers  it  consists  in  tlie  representation  of  thinf^s 
they  propose  to  construct. 

Children  in  these  grades  sliould  liave  opportunity  for 
much  use  of  these  three  modes  of  representation,  especially 
in  connection  with  subjects  ^\•hich  call  detinitely  for  one 
or  another  of  these  means  of  interpretation.  Vov  example, 
incidental  blackboard  descriptions  or  sketch  notes  in  con- 
nection with  arithmetic,  geography,  or  history  are  often  of 
little  ^■aluc  unless  tlu'V  can  be  made  (ptickly  and  \\  ith  a 
few  strokes.  Children  freiiuently  lack  power  to  make  such 
sketches  l)ecause  it  is  sometimes  mistakenly  su];)posed  that 
practice  in  slo\\ly  Hulshed  work  will  give  this  ability.  I'^acil- 
itv  with  this  sort  of  graphic  exj)ression  should  not  be  left 
to  chance,  but  should  constitute  a  dc^hiite  aim.  Nature 
sttidy,  physics,  and  constructive  work,  on  the  other  hand, 
demand  a  closer  adherence  to  certain  facts  of  form,  a  clear 
itnderstanding  of  details  of  structttre,  and  accuratt'  records 
of  olxservation  A\hich  cannot  Ije  hastily  sketched  or  ade- 
quately shown  by  a  few  strokes  of  the  pencil.  The  children 
appreciate  the  nee(ls  of  the  case  in  hand  and  can  be  led 
readily  to  adopt  the  style  of  drawing  which  suits  the  occa- 
sion. Kapid  sketching  is  learnecl  oidy  by  sketching  rapidly: 
al)ility  in  exact  delineation  comes  only  by  making  exact  re[)- 
resentations  ;  and  facility  in  expressing  ideas  is  de\elo[)ed 
onlv  through  drawing  from  memoiw  and  imagination.  The 
sort  of  undifferentiated  drawing  from  o])jects,  which  so  often 
constitutes  the  larger  part  of  the  special  work  in  dra\\ing, 
will  not  produce  that  facility  in  all  three  lines  ^\•hich  is  so 
valuable  an  asset. 

When  interest  in  any  topic  is  awakeiu'<k  the  appro- 
priate method  of  drawing  is  l)rought  into  use  natuially. 
The    children    make    rapid    notes    for   general    suggestions 


GltADKS   VII   AND   A'lII 


101 


and  careful  studies  for  data.  Tlic  habit  ol  usiii;,;-  sketcli- 
l)0()ks  should  be  detiuitelv  estahlisluMl.  Such  l)ooks  become 
valued  possessions,  full  of  material  which  coiuribulcs  to 
the  subject  in  hand.  Usiudly  the  children  can  be  led  to 
add  to  tiieir  own  sketches  a  collection  of  [)ictures  from 
niat;'a/.ines,  papers,  and  other  sources,  I'clatetl  to  tlie  subject. 
Fig.  ol   shows  cover  and   pa<4"es  from  a  boy"s  sketchliook. 


■Street 


BY 

i^  S  fc..W<i.*«.Ui.-'':,i.'j|^fj%^|-££l'a-   ■ 


u-;,;.; 


CANDY  i:«''::i<--'""  "■-.: 


fe]^' 


Fi(..  31.    I'a<;es  from  a  b(iy".s  sketchlxKik 

The  cnnnilative  results  of  a  series  of  efforts  to  under- 
stand and  represent  a  sim|)le  object  or  effect  will  be  e\ident 
after  a  succession  of  lessons  where  atteutiou  at  each  step 
is  concentrated  upon  a  sin^-le  detiinie  aspect  of  ihe  thinn' 
under  cousich-ratiou.  Ihe  problems  of  each  lesson  are  thus 
made  clear  for  l)oth  insti'uctor  and  [»upil  aud  furnish,  what 
is  i^i'eatK'  nee(led  iu  courses  iu  diaw  iui:,'.  a  wcH-understood 
<roal  of  effoil  and  staudard  of  aci-oiuhhslimeiit. 


102  FIXK  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ARTS 

For  example,  in  nature  drawing  the  following  steps 
illustrate  successive  phases  which  might  he  considered  in 
different  lessons. 

1.  Free  drawings  witli  hrush  and  ink  to  represent  with 
a  few  strokes  the  growth  and  general  character.  Here  the 
whole  attention  is  focused  u})on  salient  characteristics 
(Fig.  :i2,  J). 

2.  Representation  of  a  flower  and  a  leaf  turned  at  different 
angles  (Fig.  32.  B). 

o.  Careful  drawings  of  details  of  structure,  such  as  the 
exact  shape  of  a  petal,  the  construction  and  outline  of  a 
flower  or  leaf,  and  the  fine  curvature  of  a  stem.  These 
should  be  drawn  with  a  pencil  wliich  is  hard  and  sharp 
enough  to  record  facts.  The  purpose  here  is  not  a  pictur- 
esque result  but  an  accurate  record  of  such  facts  as  would 
l)e  used  for  a  science  notel)Ook  or  for  material  for  design 
(Fig.  82,  C). 

■4.  Matching  in  color  the  exact  hue  of  petals,  stem,  u})per 
and  under  sides  of  leaves,  etc. 

o.  Use  of  tlie  forms  as  elements  in  design,  as  in  a  l)order 
for  eml)roiderv  or  a  unit  for  decoration  of  a  cover  for  nature- 
study  pa})ers,  etc. 

A  similar  opportunity  for  concentration  upon  a  single  topic 
for  a  considerable  period  of  time  is  found  in  landscape  draw- 
ing in  connection  with  geography.  Suppose  the  country  un- 
der consideration  is  Holland.  A  large  drawing  may  be  begun 
upon  the  l)oard  and  this  may  be  nioditicd  oi-  addt'(l  to  from 
time  to  time  as  the  children  obtain  additional  data  or  more 
definite  knowledge  of  the  subject  matter.  Meanwliile  each 
child  may  start  a  drawing  of  his  own  on  a  sheet  of  [)aper. 
At  first  }K'rlia})s  the  results  may  l)e  meagt'r  and  include 
onlv  a  few  suo'crestions  of  the  countrv,  such  as  a  horizontal 


(IKADKS  VII  AXI)  VIII 


103 


line  to  ro})rest'nt  its  level  eharacter  and  crude  suo'o'estioiis 
of  eaiials  and  windmills.  C'olleetions  of  })ictnres  and  the 
hints  gathered  from  descriptions  will  innnediately  furnish 
new  material.  One  group  of  pu[)ils  may  he  assigned  to 
gather  pictures  of  canals  and  learn  how  to  re[)resent  them 
so  they  ai)[)ear  to  stretch  away  into  tlie  distance.  ^Vnother 
group  may  collect  data  regarding  the  ap[)earance  of  wind- 
mills, and  still  others  may  study  eanal  hoats,  houses,  and 
other  items  ri'lating  to  Holland.    Day  hy  day  the  picture  on 


/         S/ 


Fjc.  '.j'2.    Dil'tVivut  kinds  df  plant  drawini 


the  board  will  evolve  and  old  drawings  l)e  replaced  In'  new 
ones  wliich  are  more  adiMjuate.  The  indi\idual  sketches 
will  give  opportunity  for  original  compositions.  Cliildrt'U 
will  he  encouraged  to  practice  on  })arlicular  effects  till  tliev 
havt'  mastere(l  them. 

.Moods  of  natui'c  furnish  e([tndly  interesting  suhjects:  for 
examj)le,  autumn.  t\\  ilight,  stoi'iii.  sunshine,  etc.  In  the  case 
of  j)oelical  ctTects  sucii  as  these,  the  children  should  sup- 
plement theii'  own  attempts  with  collections  of  illusirations 
of  the  toj)ic  in  hand,  made  i'rom  all  availahle  sources,  and 


10-4  I'IXE  AND   IXDUS'IUIAL  ARTS 

they  should  at  the  same  thne  become  acquainted  with  some 
related  literary  descriptions.  ^Esthetic  appreciation  is  more 
likely  to  be  developed  l)y  interpreting  familiar  subjects  than 
by  searching  for  the  traditionally  picturesque. 

The  representation  of  geometric  solidity  is  of  especial 
importance  to  the  student  of  constructive  work,  and  is  one 
which  appeals  to  children  at  an  early  age.  ( )ne  fa\'orite  juve- 
nile method  is  to  draw  two  rectangles  which  partly  overlap 
and  connect  the  corners.  The  result  a[)pears  like  a  trans- 
parent solid  (Fig.  •^>o,  J  ).  Children  soon  diseoNci'  what  lines 
to  erase  in  such  a  iigui'e  so  that  one  appears  to  l)e  looking 
do\Mi  upon  it  or  up  at  it  (Fig-  •>».  J>)-  They  readily  learn 
that  thi-ce  lines  furnish  a  key  to  the  structure  and  [)osition 
of  the  box  and  that  the  other  lint'S  follow  respectively  the 
general  directions  of  these  f  Fig.  ^v).  C).  'Idicir  first  attempts 
at  completing  the  l)ox  are  fre(iuent]y  like  l-'ig.  ^lo.  ]>.  l)ut 
practice  in  treating  this  iigure  as  a  problem  in  eonsti-uctioiu 
by  trinnning  down  the  top  and  sides  till  these  are  satisfactory 
representations  of  rectangular  faces,  soon  results  in  a  con- 
vincing [)icture  of  a  I'eetangular  solid.  The  children  are  then 
readv  to  experiment  with  different  slants  of  the  hrst  three 
kev  lines  to  see  tlu'  etfect  in  changing  the  a})part'nt  position 
of  the  solid  (  Fig.  •]•).  E  and  ,/•').  Xothing  seems  so  I'eadily 
to  develop  al)ility  to  re[)resent  rectangular  solidity  and  to 
draw  from  actual  ol)jects  as  progi'essi\e  work  in  this  con- 
structive drawing  from  imagination.  Awy  elaborate  study 
of  the  pi'inciples  of  formal  })ers[)ective.  such  as  the  con\er- 
gence  of  retreating  lines  or  the  relation  of  the  object  to  the 
level  (»f  the  eye,  (hx'S  not  seem  to  be  necessary  or  helpfu.l 
at  this  time. 

'Idle  children  learn  later  to  discover  in  more  complex 
constructed  objects  the  few  lines  which  show  the  position 


106 


FINK  AXI)  IXDUSTKIAL  ARTS 


and  structure,  and  by  moans  of  tliesc  to  (U'terniiue  tlie 
directions  of  others,  and  tlius  lind  the  solution  of  somewhat 
complicated  })r()blems  of  representation.  They  proceed  with 
their  drawing-  of  objects  as  if  they  were  actually  construct- 
ing them.  For  example,  in  drawino'  a  cliaii'.  the  same  series 
of  structui'al  lines  su^'gested  in  the  drawing  of  a  box  gives  a 
means  of  reducing  to  systiMU  the  more  mimerous  lines  of  the 
chair,  which  if  luirelated  would  ^)ro^•e  confusing.    In  Fig.  34 


'iT 


y 


^^. 


/^. 
-^. 


Fi(i.  ;j4.    The  I'flatinii  uf  tin.'  liufs  of  roctaiiuular  cilijccts  lu  tlirce  key  lines 

the  lint's  mai-ked  1.  li,  and  -]  furnish  the  key  to  the  dii'eetion 
of  most  of  the  others.  If  tiiese  art'  determine(l  in  the  right 
pi'oportion  and  at  the  right  angles,  the  general  structure 
mav  easily  be  completed.  All  slants  extending  U[)ward  to 
the  left  are  determined  by  1.  and  all  to  the  right  by  2. 

The  closed  book  in  I'"ig.  '-W  re[»resents  a  distorted  outline 
fre(pteiilly  drawn  by  chil(h'en,  and  within  this  outline  the 
correct  a])})carance  ai'ri\cd  at  b\-  (h'awing  lines  to  corres|)()n(l 
with  the  kev  hnes.  1.  1*.  and  •). 


(iUADKS  VII    AND  VIII 


lo: 


Tliis  (Iocs  not  mean  that  all  the  slants  arc  parallel  to  1 
oi'  '2.  In  fact  till'  lines  a[)i)car  to  convcro-c  as  they  extend 
away  from  the  (tbserver,  but  when  some  facility  in  i'e[)re- 
sentino-  n'ctano'ular  objects  in  different  [)ositions  has  been 
i^'aincd  and  the  eye  n'rows  accustomed  to  intci'preting  draw- 
ings, it  will  lu"  found  that  the  attempt  to  make  the  sha[)es 
look  rig'ht  results  in  an  approximation  to  the  [)ro[)er  cou- 
vero'cnci'.  This  method  of  ap[)roach  to  perspective  differs 
from  that  which  begins  with  discussions  of  the  relations  of 
the  object  to  data  external  to  itself,  such  as  the  level  of  the 
eye  and  tlu'  vanishino'  points  of  retreatino-  lines,  in  that  it 
aims  to  develo[)  the  trustworthiness  of  the  testimony  of  the 
eye  concerning'  actual  ap[)earances  bt^fore  attem[)ting  to 
make  deductions  regardino-  these  ap[)eai'ances  from  a  theory 
based  u[)on  external  and  usually  in\isible  data.  The  mak- 
ing of  such  (h'diu-tions  is  valuable  as  a  means  of  checking 
u[>  icsults  aftei'  the  visual  pt-rceptions  can  be  depended 
upon,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  these  I'onditions  can  be  fully 
attained  bctoi'c  childi'cn  arri\-e  at  the  high-school  age. 

Tlic  sanu'  general  principles  hold  regarding  the  re[)re- 
scnlation  of  curvilinear  objects,  such  as  a  glass  oi-  a  bowl. 
'Ihe  (luestion  most  full  of  (U'scri[)tive  suggestion  is  not, 
"How  far  below  the  lev(d  of  the  eye  is  this  glass?" 
but  How  far  can  one  see  into  it?"  The  line  answering 
this  <|uesti()n  establishes  the  cur\('  which  determiiu's  all 
relatcil  circles  (  I'ig.  ■)•">,  -I  and  />'). 

I)\'  means  of  sketches  each  child  should  construct  such 
foiiiis  (111  paper  with  the  pencil,  conijiaring  and  modif\iiig 
tliciii  until  llicir  appearance  satisfies  his  e\-e.  lie  should  do 
this  till  he  forgets  that  he  is  working  in  two  dimensions 
and  feels  instead  that  he  is  slia]iiiig  these  forms  in  all  tlii'ee. 
lie  sliould  not  think  of  his  foreshortened  circle  as  an  ellij)se. 


^-^ 


108 


<diiP> 


Fi...  ;!•").  n 

10!  I 


110 


FIXE  AXl)  IXDl'STlilAL  AKTS 


])ut  as  a  circle  wliicli  extends  1)ack  into  tlie  pictui'c,  and 
which  he  shapes  until  it  is  a  satisfactory  picture  of  a 
circle  lying-  flat.  He  should  hviild  up  representations  of 
solids  from  iniao-ination  till  his  eye  can  detect  any  false 
construction  or  any  shape  that  does  not  cany"  the  impres- 
sion of  curvilinear  or  of  rectangtilar  solidity.  lie  should 
|)lay  with  these  figures  till  he  can  place  them  in  what- 
ever position  he  chooses,  and  build  on  additions,  or  modifv 
by  cutting  into  different  shapes,  lie  Avill  thus  devtdop 
delinite  concepts  of  types  of  solidity.  'Die  fact  is  some- 
times overlo(jked  that  one  can  seldom  draw  an  object  well, 
the  general  type  of  which  he  has  not  mastered  and  made 
his  own  so  that  he  can  draw  it  readilv  from  imagination 
(Fig.  36,  .1  and  Jl). 

Interest  in  searching  for  pictorial  ex[)ressiou  for  one's 
ideas  helps  to  (le\e]o|)  artistic  a[)preciation.  When  pu})ils 
ha\"e  become  interested  in  tr\ing  to  interpret  into  lines  and 
colors  their  impressions  of  a  sceiu\  for  example,  of  autumn, 
and  ha\'e  stdected  from  among  autunm  pictures  those  wliicli 
are  most  in  harmon\'  with  tlu^ir  own  feelings,  they  ai'c  gain- 
ing experience  which  will  ludp  them  enter  into  the  spirit 
of  a  \\'ork  of  ai't  which  is  an  artist's  interpi-etation  of  this 
topic,  witli  much  nioi'c  svmpathv  and  res[)onsiveiu'ss  tlian 
if  they  had  made  no  effort  to  express  it  or  to  select  good 
interpretations  of  it.  'J'he  seai'ch  among  many  sources  in 
miture,  literature,  and  art.  for  the  embodiment  of  a  partic- 
ular idea  or  the  expression  of  a  mood  should  be  an  impor- 
tant element  in  all  picture  study. 

In  each  grade  the  pictui'es  stuilied  should  be  such  as 
embod\'  o])jects  and  interests  which  touch  somewhere  the 
experiences  of  the  children.  The  lirst  [)leasui'e.  which  later 
may  dcNchtp  into  a'Sthetic  ap})reciati(»n,  may  he  awakened 


(iHADKS   VII    AM)   \' III  111 

by   well-drawn,   vi^'oroiisly   coloivd   pictmvs   designed    for 
children,  as  well   as  by  fanions  niaster[)ieees. 

The  followino-  deseription  of  an  experiment  in  pietnre 
study  in  upper  grades  is  reprinted  by  courtesy  of  Tlte 
School  A)i><  Booky 

Tlic  topii',  "  Picture  Study."  \vliicli  occurs  in  most  courses  in  draw- 
ing', deserves  all  the  jironiinence  that  is  now  i^iveu  to  it.  The  niajoi'- 
ity  of  peojile  want  to  he  ahle  to  appreciate  and  enjoy  works  of  art. 
IntelliL^'ent  enjoynient  of  art  is  seldom  i^ained  except  through  s]iecial 
study  detinitely  [ilanne(l  to  accomplish  that  eU(L  To  (K'teriuine  what 
lines  that  study  should  follow  has  heen  tlie  pur[iose  of  luucdi  discus- 
sion and  eX])eriinentation. 

One  method,  pierhaps  the  method  of  least  value  in  elementary 
schools,  is  to  analyze  ])ictures  in  order  to  discover  centers  of  interest, 
halance  of  masses,  leading'  lines,  etc.  This  is  helpful  to  adults  as  a 
study  of  one  phase  of  the  jiainter's  way  of  doiuL;'  thin,L;s,  but  uidess 
presented  with  clear  understamling'  of  its  relative  value  it  is  likcdy 
t<i  fail  to  (h'Vtdoj)  a  sincere  enjoynu'ut  of  jiictures. 

Another  method  is  to  show  jiictures  to  the  (diildren  and  encourage 
them  to  talk  aliout  wliat  they  see  and  enjoy.  Incidentally,  stories  of 
the  artist,  tlie  tiiues  iu  wintdi  he  lived,  and  the  thiiiL;'s  he  cdiose 
to  paint  are  presentcfl  to  add  historical  interests  and  associations  to 
the  ]iictures.  'I'liis  L;ives  a  ]>leasant  acvpiaintauce  with  works  of  art 
and  awakens  oftentimes  a  sincere  likint;'  for  them. 

If  one  allowed  his  judi;nient  \o  he  hased  upou  the  written  papers 
wliicli  are  sonu'times  asked  for  after  lessons  in  picture  study,  he 
mi,u'ht  he  le(l  to  douht  souie  asjiects  of  this  method  ;  hut  perhaps  the 
fault  is  not  in  the  uiethod.  liut  iu  askinj^'  too  soou  thai  (diildren  luake  a 
statement,  in  definite  terms  of  laiii^uai^c,  reL;ardiun'  nuitters  of  fe(din,i;'. 

Instructoi's  who  \\ish  to  awaken  iu  their  ]iiipils  true  eujoyuieiit 
of  pictures,  an  eiijoyuieiit  that  is  not  a  passim^'  ])reference  hut  an 
aliidin.i;'  pleasure,  uii,L;ht  find  ludpful  suL;'i;'estious  fi-om  considering' 
carefully  the  familial'  statement  that  one  nets  from  a  picture  only 
what  he  lirinL;s  to  it.  If  follows  that  preparation  for  seeiun'  a  ]iic- 
tiire  should   lie  made   liefore   the   picture   is   presented,  iu   order  that 

'  ".\ii  Kxperiiiieiit  in  Picture  8tu(ly."'  77/c  School  vl/ts  llt>i>k.  ()ctol)er, 
P.iUl). 


'^^^'JZ^ 


Fig.  .3(),  .1 


112 


^-feU 


n> 


\ 


-■  --N. 


-;:^_ 


(  I 


vr, '/,  im  t  OB  ricn. 


Vu.. .](;.  li 


ii;5 


114  FINK  AND    LXDUSTKIAL  ARTS 

tlie  children  may  liave  some  directly  related  experiences  to  hrini;'  to 
it,  and  that  the  teacher's  explanations  may  Ite  unnecessary  at  the 
time.  It  is  probable  that  such  enjoyment  of  art  as  we  wish  our  ]iupils 
to  possess  can  come  only  when  tliey  liave  l>een  jireviously  interested 
l)y  ol)servations  of  their  own  in  the  subject  which  the  artist  jiortrays, 
so  when  they  come  to  it  they  come  to  something'  which  tliey  tluMu- 
selves  have  tried  to  express,  ev(>n  though  crudely,  and  which  they 
rejoice  to  see  set  forth  skillfully. 

The  following  experiment  was  tried  with  a  larn'c  number  of 
children  in  Boston  in  tlie  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  years  of  scliool,  in 
order  to  observe  the  results  of  giviug  the  childrtMi  exiieriences  whii'h 
sliould  prepare  them  to  see  the  pictures  which  were  to  be  studied. 

Twilight  was  selected  as  a  topic  for  s[)ecial  o])servation.  The  chil- 
dren were  encouraged  to  gather  pictures  of  twilight  fi'om  magazine 
illustrations,  ]ihotogra})hs,  and  other  sources.  They  were  led  to  ol)- 
serve  twilight  effects  out  of  doors.  The  results  of  these  observations 
were  rendered  definite  by  means  of  notes  made  with  water  color. 
The  colors  of  tlie  sky,  clouds,  trees,  and  buildings  on  different  even- 
ings wer<i  I'ecorded.  The  children  noted  whether  the  buildings  seen 
against  the  sunset  sky  ai)peared  in  tlieir  local  color,  or  wei-e  flooded 
with  the  golden  glow,  or  contrasted  with  it  liy  appearing  to  be  com- 
plementary in  hue.  ^lany  children  were  (Mithusiastic  in  their  de- 
scriptiiMis  (jf  twilight  effects  and  made  sketches,  s(nn(.'  of  which  wei'e 
crude  in  color  while  others  wtM-e  soft  and  delicate. 

The  next  steps  in  the  expeiinu'ut  were  made  possible  by  the  cor- 
dial cooperation  of  the  ^Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  which  reproduced  in 
half  tone  several  of  its  pictun-s  representing  twilight,  and  made 
these  reproductions  availalile  for  the  schools  at  cost.  About  sixteen 
hundred  of  these  were  bought  by  the  teachers  and  disti'iliuted  to  the 
pupils.  Fach  child  nuide  two  or  three  sinn)le  copies  in  jiencil  of  tlie 
^Museum  jiicture  given  liim,  rejiroducing  the  effect  as  well  as  ]iossil)le 
by  this  means,  lie  then  (^xperinuMited  i)y  painting  over  these  peni-il 
sketches  with  water  coh.ir  tht;  ditferent  schemes  of  twilight  color 
whicli  he  had  recorded.  He  thus  gained  intimate  actpiaintauce  with 
an  excellent  black-aud-white  com]iosition,  and  added  to  this  the 
color,  an  element  which  was  the  result  of  his  own  obsei'vaiion. 

After  this  numy  of  the  children  wisheil  to  visit  tlie  Museum  in 
order  that  th(\v  might  see  the  original  jiicture.  Those  who  had  oji- 
liortunity  to  do  so,  when  they  saw  for  the  first  time  the  painting 
with  the  composition  of  which  they  were  already  familiar,  viewed  it 


(;KA1)KS  VII    AM)  \II1 


115 


witli  iiarticiilar  attt'iitiou  to  see  wiiat  colors  liad  liccu  used  liy  the 
artist  and  liow  liis  sclu'iiu'  ('oiiipart'd  with  tlicir  own.  I'sually  an 
art  innsciini  apjiears  to  a  cliild  soincwliat  like  a  panorama.  The 
previous  study  of  a  jiarticular  topic,  liowever.  served  to  isohite  a  few 
pictures  from  tlie  mass  and  make  tliem  oijjects  of  sjx'cial  attraction. 
The  children  felt  a  fellowship  of  interest  and  effort  ln'tween  them- 
sehcs  and  the  artist. 

Kveu  those  who  did  not  visit  tlie  Museum  i^ained  much  enjoyment 
of  twilight  effects  in  nature  and  of  descrijitions  of  them  in  literature. 

One  priiicipal  wrote  as  follows: 

"You  will  lie  as  jileased  as  I  was  myself  when  I  tell  yon  that  two 
of  my  l>oys.  e\idently  ins|iired  liy  our  collection  of  twilight  picturt^s 
and  without  any  suL;',uestiiui  ou  my  ]iart,  hrou^;ht  me  two  poems 
liearin;;'  u]M)n  the  theme  we  were  studying'  in  our  drawim;'.  One 
hi'ou^ht  in  a  clipping'  from  a  newspaper,  wlTudi  told  of  the  endiuL;'  of 
the  day  with  the  fadinn'  of  the  sunset  colors,  the  niL;'ht,  and  tlie 
dawninu  of  another  day,  makinn'  application  to  the  cdosini;'  of  a 
human  life  in  this  world  and  its  sulise(pu'nt  awakening;'  in  eternity. 
The  other,  with  the  air  of  a  discoverer,  laid  upiui  my  desk  I'ennv- 
son"s  'Sweet  and  i^ow,  ^^'illd  of  the  A\'(.'stern  Sea.' 

"  I  read  these  to  the  class  with  sim])ly  an  acknowledi;inent  of  the 
soui'ces  from  \\hi(di  1  had  ohtained  them.  I  was  not  surprised  when 
hoy  No.  :>  laid  (iray"s  '  l-]leL;y  '  before  me  a  day  later.  I  plan  to  have 
the  class  learn  this  while  the  strong'  side  li^n'ht  of  their  |iicture  st  udy 
is  still  shiniuL;'  upon  it,  and  I  see  the  possihility  of  otiu'r  work  with- 
in the  outline  for  readin.n',  in  correlati(Mi  with  drawing;'." 

Tlic  po.ssihility  nf  (l('V('l()j)ino-  other  t(i])ics  in  a  siinihif 
iimnnci'  i.'^  cNidciit.  To  each  !4'ival  artist  sonic  pliasc  of 
tlic  world  lias  iiiadc  a  j)articiilar  tippcal  and  it  bccoiin's  liis 
liidd  for  stiuly  and  iiitcrprctat ioii.  The  bt'st  wav  to  dcNclop 
tlic  fullest  eiijoynieiit  aii<l  appreciation  of  his  work  appears 
to  lie  in  awakeniuo-  interests  siinihir  to  tliose  which  inspired 
his  art.  and  in  cncouraL^ino-  eflorts  at  e\])ression,  howH'Ncr 
crude,  of  the  same  thino'.  .\ilislic  pictorial  material  of  line 
(piality  is  now  c\cr\  where  ;i\ailal>le.  An  instructor  who 
culls  fi'oiii  1  he  Itcst  of  the  nioiithh' niao'azincs  can  soon  foi'in 
a  collection   of  [)ictures  exc(dleni  not   oid\'  in   composition 


116  FJXE  AND  IXDISTKIAL   ARTS 

Imt  in  color.  Pul)lic'-spirite(l  citizens  are  always  ready 
to  contribute  magazines  a  month  old.  and  thus  interpre- 
tations of  the  different  subjects  of  study  can  gradually 
be  collected. 

ConstnicftDn.  In  these  grades  the  prol)lems  dealing  with 
concrete  materials  have  a  wide  range  of  ap[)lication,  for 
example,  in  agriculture,  woodworking,  household  science, 
household  art,  and  various  prevocational  activities.  'J'hese 
are  influenced  strongly  by  local  conditions.  The  wcirk  is 
also  largely  in  the  hands  of  special  teachers,  and  the  oppor- 
tunities for  excellent  training  for  such  teachers  ai'e  continu- 
ally im})roving.  The  suggesticjns  here  given  are  therefore 
general. 

The  character  of  the  work  should  be  such  as  to  satisfy 
the  rapidly  awakening  economic  instinct,  and  to  develop 
a  techni(|ue  sufficiently  excellent  to  connnand  I'cspect.  It 
should  be  noted,  however,  tliat  skill  of  hand,  although 
necessary,  is  not  the  only  important  outcome  of  construc- 
tive work  in  these  grades. 

A  fault  of  former  education  ^^•as  that  it  furnished  little 
opportunity  for  anything  but  specified  lines  of  intellectmil 
activity.  Constructive  work  in  modern  education  may  err 
in  failing  to  associate  itself  as  dclinitely  as  it  might  with 
intellectual  activity.  Each  line  of  Avork  should  involve,  in 
connection  with  its  imme(liate  technical  processes,  its  wider 
social,  u'sthetic,  and  industrial  relati(»ns.  In  addition  the 
instructor  should  never  lose  sight  of  the  importance  of 
steadily  increashig  a  student's  ability  to  forecast  processes 
and  results,  as  far  as  })ossible,  in  detinite  tei-ms. 

Oftentimes  tlie  constructive  enlliusiasni  is  so  great,  and 
the  realization  of  the  value  of  preliminary  planning  so 
slight,  that  a  child  needs  the  experience  of  discovering  in  a 


(iliADKS   VII    AND   \- 11 1  117 

practical  way  the  waste  of  tinic  and  cneruv  n'sultiiig-  from 
a  direct,  thouu'iitless  attack  upon  material.  However,  after 
tlie  lirst  practical  accpiaiutance  with  the  tools  and  processes 
of  a  prol)leni  has  lu'cn  gained,  the  handlinn'  or  cutting;'  of 
material  should  he  made  to  wait  till  the  results  June  been 
thought  out  and,  as  far  as  possible,  foretold  in  terms  of 
verbal  descriptions,  sketches,  plans,  estimates,  and  meas- 
urements. Mere  technical  excellence  can  carry  one  but  a 
short  way  in  larger  constructive  })r()blems. 

During  these  grades  a  recognition  of  social  relations 
becomes  evident,  and  the  desire  to  contribute  something 
to  the  woi'ld's  work  tisiudly  grows  keen.  Nature  study 
a[)propriately  takt's  the  form  of  agriculture.  C'hildr(>n  are 
interested  in  attempting  to  raise  the  best  products  and  to 
try  for  prizes  for  the  l)est  ear  of  corn,  etc.  They  like  to  be 
able  to  modify  natural  conditions  for  the  sake  of  l)etter 
results,  as  by  grafting  trees  or  making  hotbeds. 

In  woodworking,  if  the  training  in  previous  grades  has 
been  thorougli  and  progressive,  pupils  can  undertake  indi- 
vidual projects  of  some  importance,  such  as  chairs,  desks, 
tables,  cabint'ts,  bookracks,  etc.,  which  can  be  put  to 
actual  use  in  the  school  or  at  home,  and  they  enjoy  the 
effort  and  exercise  of  skill  recpiired  to  carry  them  to  com- 
pletion. I'nder  S[)ecial  conditions  skill  may  be  ac<|uired 
bv  means  of  in(livi<lual  [jrojeets  from  the  tirsl.  but  tiie 
practical  outcome  of  an  attempt  to  do  this  with  wood- 
working classes  of  reasonal)le  size  is  that  the  insti'uctor  is 
luiable  to  give  the  attention  to  each  pu])il  which  is  neces- 
sarv  to  the  formation  of  desii'able  habits  of  woi'k.  A  small 
proportion  of  the  whole  number  j)roduce  excellent  results, 
but  the  majority  make  relatively  little  })rogress  and  do  not 
acquire  freedom  from  technical  ditliculties  soon  enough  to 


118 


FIXE  AND   INDISTRIAL  ARTS 


enjoy  the  results  of  skill.    Figs.  37  and  88  show  samples  of 
woochvork  by  boys  of  Grade  YIII  in  a  public  school. 

Industrial  work  whicli  contributes  to  some  actual  needs 
of  the  school  system  is  an  important  factor.  There  is 
opportunity  for  many  activities,   such  as  making  furniture, 


i'i(..  yi 


\V( 


by  boys  in  (ii'ade  \'lll 


picture  frames,  window  boxes,  sketchl)Ooks,  card-catalogue 
boxes,  portfolios,  a})paratus,  pi'inting  and  binding,  etc. 

Household  science  and  household  art  may  be  so  presented 
as  to  awaken  a  sense  of  the  dignity  of  the  h()usckee})ing 
})i'oblem  and  of  the  possibilities  of  accomplishment  that 
result  from  intelligent  skill.  I'lic  children  should  learn 
to  handle  materials  economically,  according  to  plans  held 
clearly  in  mind.    In  household  science  suitable  prol)lems  are 


(iUADKS   VII   AND   ^■  I II 


119 


abuiulant.  Aitiou^"  these  are  the  care  of  foonis,  the  sei'\iiii;' 
(if  nu'als,  the  pn'paratioii  of  vej^etahles,  meats,  l)rt-a(ls.  and 
pu(hliii^'s,  the  eai'e  of  foods,  sinipU'  prohlenis  in  marketing" 
and  in  kee[)inn'  aet-onnts.  In  liousehold  ai'ts,  nieiidino-  and 
(hirniiii:'.  ])astiiiu;  and  sewing",  sini[)le  sewino-  by  maeliine.  the 


1 

Fi(,.  ;l.s.    WiMidwcrk  liv  l)uvs  in  (iradc  \'lll 


making;'  of  underwear  and  of  simple  (h'esses,  and  some  ich'as 
rclatiuL;'  to  the  care  of  fahi'ies  and  the  liygiene  of  clothes 
are  w  itliin  the  scope  of  elementaiy-school  work.  I^xperienee 
in  classilicatioii  of  textiles  and  knowledg'e  of  methods  of 
manufacture  and  of  costs  and  uses  shoulil  de\(dop  practi- 
cal  judginent  of  (|Uality  an<l  of  a])pi<)priate  ])rice. 

Ihstijii.     In  (ii'adcs  \' 1 1  autl   \  III   those  pliases  of  desio-u 
which   call    for    jud'-incnt    rcLiardiu'''    the   htness  of   thinti's. 


120  FIXE  AND  IXDLSTRIAL  ARTS 

the  beauty  of  proportions  and  of  outlines,  and  tlie  suitability 
of  ornament  and  harmony  of  color  are  of  increasino'  impor- 
tance. The  pupils  are  sufficiently  mature  to  appreciate  to 
some  extent  fine  forms  and  harmonious  colors;  to  realize 
the  difference  between  excellence  of  desi^-n  which  renders  an 
object  beautiful  and  permanently  satisfactory,  and  that  sen- 
sational or  connnonplace  modilication  of  form  and  addition 
of  unrelated  ornament  which  contribute  nothino-  toward  the 
graceful  setting  forth  of  the  idea  involved  in  the  object. 

Free  decorative  practice  may  be  gained  in  large  irdvt  in 
connection  with  the  experimental  sketches  for  designs. 
Children  in  these  grades  who  are  making  a  design  for  a 
constructive  shape  which  involves  beauty  of  outline,  or  for 
an  interlacing  of  lines  as  in  a  monogram  or  in  patterns  of 
embroidery,  develop  a  feeling  f(U'  fine  curves  by  gradually 
modifying  the  sliapes  till  the  lines  flow  pleasingly  and 
consistently. 

Development  of  appreciation  of  beauty  of  form  may  come 
in  part  from  the  careful  detailed  drawing  of  line  forms  in 
nature,  l)ut  such  ap}>reciation  may  be  greatly  reenforced  by 
practice  in  making  many  free  sketches  of  plaiU  forms  with 
a  brush.  The  plant  should  l)e  interjU'cted  into  as  few  lines 
us  })Ossible  and  this  convention  repeateil  till,  like  pemuan- 
shi[),  it  gains  a  swing  and  flow  of  line  that  is  not  ]abore(l. 
The  l)est  of  these  results  may  be  worked  over  and  })ei'feeted 
l)y  the  use  of  tracing  paper. 

The  children  should  be  impressed  bv  example  as  well  as 
precept,  A\ith  the  idea  that  the  possibilities  for  beauty  lie 
mostly  in  the  })lanning  and  proportioning  of  t'ssential  parts 
of  objects,  and  not  in  added  ornament.  The  flnest  l)eauty 
of  a  boat  is  its  shape  and  not  its  (h'coi'ation  :  of  a  chair,  its 
proporti(jns  and  not   its  ornamental   carving.     No  element 


(JKADES  VII  AND  VIII  121 

can  contribute  more  to  the  beauty  of  tlie  outside  ajjpear- 
aiiee  of  a  house  tliau  the  line  proportioning-  and  s[)aeino-  of 
doors  and  \vin(h)\\s.  Walter  Crane  states  this  principle 
Mell  when  he  says  : 

Xdtliinq'  lias  (It-ynuUnl  tlic  form  of  coiniiuni  things  so  luiicli  as  a 
iiiistakfii  lovi'  of  oriiainent.  .  .  .  Decoration  or  oriiainciit  wc  liave 
Ik'cii  too  iiiucli  arciistonu'd  to  consider  as  an  accidental  and  unre- 
lated addition  to  an  oKject.  not  as  an  essential  ex}iression  and  orgaTuc 
part  of  it  :  not  as  a  Iteauty  which  may  satisfy  ns  in  simple  line,  f<n-ni, 
or  jirojportion  comltined  with  fitness  to  [nirjiose,  even  withont  any 
surface  onuunent  at  all.^ 

Children  are  readily  interested  in  makin^i^  designs  where 
the  solution  lies  in  the  best  possible  disposition  of  neces- 
sary constructive  elements  with  little  or  no  ornamentation, 
and  soon  appear  to  enjoy  such  a  })roblem,  partly  becatise 
of  the  detiniteness  produced  by  its  limitations.  The  lesson 
covers  in  Fig.  80  illustrate  the  different  results  obtained 
when  the  ])ossibilities  for  good  design  in  line  arrangement 
of  parts  are  realized  and  when  they  are  not.  I'ig.  o9,  ./, 
is  tvpical  of  what  a  child  is  likely  to  produce  when,  without 
any  foundation  of  previous  training,  lu'  is  left  free  to  make 
his  design  as  he  pleasc-s.  He  has  not  responded  to  the  ver- 
tical and  horizontal  suggestions  of  the  inclosing  s[)ace,  but 
has  violated  tlu'se  with  his  diagonal  printing.  He  finds  no 
pleasure  in  exjjcrimenting  with  tlic  architectural  effects  of 
line  spacing  and  well-ari'angcd  margins.  His  [)rimarv  inter- 
est is  the  ])arbaric  one  of  eollection  and  dis[)lav.  with  onlv 
seeondai'V  regard  for  ai'rangcment.  Theix'  is  no  lasting 
satisfaction  and  no  cleai'ly  delined  goal  for  this  interest.  It 
is  a  matter  of  nu-i'c  sensation.  It  demands  e\er  brighter 
colors  and  more  profuse  ornamentation. 

'  Walter  Ciaue.  "The  I'.ases  of  l)e>i-ii,"  p.  '.»(). 


122 


FIXE  AND  INDL.STUIAL  ARTS 


Such  a  design  as  Fig-.  39,  />,  results  from  long  experience 
in  })lacing  words  Avliere  they  divide  the  spaet^  niost  })leas- 
ingly,  and  in  spacing  letters  in  the  words  till  satisfaction 
is  awakened  more  by  the  harmonious  distrilxition  of  the 
words  on  the  page  and  tlie  letters  within  tlie  words,  than 
by  profuse  ornamentation. 

In  such  a  design  as  this,  the  exact  areas  wliich  tlie  [)rint- 
ing  is  to  occupy  are  iirst  chosen  by  such  ex[)ei-imentation 


Fit..  li'.K  A 


:;'.t.  /; 


as  is  described  on  l)age  95,  l-'ig.  3<>,  and  tlie  letters  made  to 
conforn:i  to  these.  Children  sho\\'  much  interest  in  woi'k- 
ing  out  this  pi'o])lem.  They  like  to  experiment  by  prim- 
ing the  same  woi'd  in  rectangles  differing  entirely  as  to 
pro|)ortions,  so  that  in  each  case  tlie  \\()rd  shall  exactly 
till  the  gi\-en  form  {  I'ig.  4<j).  Such  printing  should  be 
done  free-hand  and  the  spaces  determined  not  by  measure- 
ment but  \)y  tentative  indications  made  at  Iirst  by  \-ery 
light    lines   and   gradually    detinecl    as    tin-    letters    become 


(iUADKS  VII   AND  VIII  12o 

equal)lv  distiibuti'd.  Fi^-.  41  shows  a  page  of  caiTfully 
plaiiiU'd  rovers. 

Design  ^\ili(■h  consists  in  the  best  [xissihle  arrangement 
of  given  elements,  so  that  they  fnhill  their  pnr[)osi'  a<le- 
(juately  and  graeefully  withont  reconrse  to  sensational  or 
ineongrnons  interests,  gives  pt'rmanent  satisfaction  in  a 
detinite  end  attained  and  a  single   idea  perfectly  realized. 

The  eonstrncti\e  work  and  honsehold  science  and  art 
afford  some  of  the  most  important  o[)[)ortnnities  for  design 

HENRY 
HENR 

Fn..  40.    Words  tittud  to  (liftVrciit  spaces 

hecanse  they  furnish  a  I'eason  for  shapes  and  materials  and 
an  incentive  to  experiment  with  them  (Fig.  42). 

Putting  into  Ixiok  form  the  \\'ork  u})on  other  school  to[»ics 
is  a  feature  of  design  which  is  of  increasing  \alue  each  vear. 
It  in\(>l\-cs  the  coN'cr  design,  the  litle-[)age.  margins,  ar- 
rangement of  text,  illustrations,  tailpieces,  etc.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  artistic  pi-ogrcss  that  the  children  make  all 
their  illustrations.  The  search  for  and  choice  of  pictures 
wliii-h  best  embody  the  idea  one  wishes  illusiralcd  is  an 
excellent  means  ol'  de\-eloping  appreciation  of  art. 

One  (it  the  most  important  pur|)oses  of  design  is  to 
dcNflop    gdod    a'sthctic    judgment     regarding    tlu'    things 


124 


FINE  AND   IXDU.STKIAL  ARTS 


with  wliicli  one  comes  into  daily  contact.  Svicli  judgment 
can  1)0  cultivated  by  choosing  the  best  from  among  many 
examples,   good  and   l)ad,   as  ^^■ell  as  by  making  original 


Mlh 


MARGUERITE  DCCLiy 


rwE  n  nRifiA       1  vaarioEs 


GOLDBERG 


IVANHOE 


m 


SIRWALTERSCOIT 


Fi(;.41.    Covers  fur 


)ii  paper? 


designs.  For  one  \\ho  Avill  design  a  vase  or  a  M'all  paper, 
many  thousands  will  buy  the  article.  It  is  therefore  im- 
poitant  to  know  how  to  choose  well,  and  making  designs 


CniADKS  VII   AND  ^■III 


125 


is  not  the  only  nor  alwavs  the   snrest  Avay  of  developing 
(lisei'iniination  in  selection. 

This  choosing  should  be  from  collections  similar  to 
those  from  which  the  [tupil  will  be  obliged  to  make  his 
choice  when  he  comes  to  buy  for  himself,  as  well  as  from 
examples   which   Avill    always    l)e    bt-yond    his    reach.     l'\)r 


!\^— 


1'^ 


^S^.-:. 


Ik. 


•O.O.  •o>o. 


;< 


?t 


a'Wa:a-avv'a"a"a'W«s"XV."»  ,  ••  ••■  — ••  — ••• • .*.  — -. 

Fi(..  42.    Desii^iis  fur  eniln'oidci'iMl  bdi'ders  by  i;irl.s  in  (inulc  A'llI 

instance,  if  one  wishes  to  cultivate  good  taste  regarding 
vases,  it  is  well  worth  while  to  study  those  in  line  collec- 
tions :  but  such  stiul\'  will  lose  nothing  of  practical  value 
if  it  is  supplcmeiitt'd  by  a  choice,  from  among  the  material 
available  in  a  local  stoiv.  of  the  vase  best  suited  to  show 
the  beaut  N'  of  a  [)articula)'  style  of  bou(pU't.  such  as  a 
few  spra\s  of  tall,  sleiidei'  llowers  or  a  round  bunch  of 
short -st en uued   blossoms. 


120  FINE  AX])   INDUS'IKIAL  AUTS 

Practically  all  the  objects  of  lioiuc  funiisliing-s  are  the 
results  of  long  evolution,  and  the  different  styles  have 
successively  reached  high  levels  of  artistic  excellence. 
Furniture  and  lamps,  for  example,  are  interesting  suljjects 
for  study,  historically  and  artistically,  hut  added  to  knowl- 
edge of  and  interest  in  the  Hnest  known  t'xaniples  should 
l)e  some  exercise  of  jud^'ment  in  ehoosing  the  hest  j)ossil)le 
from  available  sources,  and  this  necessitales  some  concrete 
acquaintance  with  these  sources.  The  present  generation 
may  thus  be  led  to  patronize  the  l)est  at  hand  and  to  create 
a  demand  for  what  is  still  better. 

Children  should  also  make  or  have  access  to  collections 
of  pictures  of  well-designed  dwellings  of  all  classes,  and 
})ublic  Ijuildings  for  towns  similar  in  size  and  means  to 
their  o\\ii  locality,  and  ])e  led  to  choose  wisely  among 
these.  They  should  be  encouraged  tt.  ri'[iort  on  the  most 
beautiful  views  in  town.  Where  cameras  are  owned  by 
pu})ils  a  collection  of  local  pictures  should  be  made.  \ 
study  of  one  place  under  various  aspects  gives  results  full 
of  interest  and  artistic  suggestion  :  as.  for  exam^/le.  a  street 
sceni',  or  a  laiulscape.  at  ^■ari()us  hours  of  day  and  night, 
and  in  different  seasons.  This  encourages  the  sort  of  study 
which  the  artist  gives  to  his  chosen  subjt'ct. 

Sometimes  children  may  V)e  led  to  thiid-;  about  the 
U'Sthetic  possibilities  of  their  home  surroundings  l)y  descril)- 
ing  fa\'orite  places  indoors  an<l  out.  under  such  topics  as 
My  l-'avorite  N'iew,  'Idie  Room  i  like  best.  What  a  Window- 
adds  to  a  House,  etc. 

An  example  of  sensible  teaching  of  design  is  that  of  a 
country  teacher  who  found  her  one-room  schoolhouse 
poorly  furrdshed.  with  no  pictui'cs.  an  unpleasant  wall  color. 
and  with  papei-s  in   the  windows  instead  of  curtains.     She 


(iRADKS  VII    AND  VIII  127 

undertook  to  cliann'e  one  iti'iii  at'lcr  aiiotlicv.  Tlic  childrt'ii 
discussed  tlie  bt'st  ec^lor  tor  the  wall.  A  tone  was  decided 
u[)on  and  pi-esented  to  the  connnittee,  who  ao-ixH'd  to  retint 
tlu'  room.  Curtains  were  tlu-n  considered.  Samples  were 
ol)tained  and  the  best  coloi'  and  material  decided  upon. 
The  chihh'cn  not  only  were  allowed  to  ha\e  a  part  in  the 
selection  l)\it  were  reprt'sented  at  the  purchasino'.  ('hairs, 
pictures,  and  frames  M'ere  later  discussed  and  choices  made 
with  the  aid  of  catalo^'ues  ami  visits  to  stoi'es.  The  making 
of  the  changes  occupied  two  or  three  years,  and  the  money 
was  ol)tained  in  })art  from  entertainments  given  by  the 
children.  'I'lie  artistic  ti'aining  was  such  that  it  develo})ed 
nnu'h  practical  ac(iuaintance  with  ways  of  selecting  furnish- 
ings, and  incidentally  the  chikh'en  developed  a  sense  of 
owni'rship  in  the  school.  Tlu'V  sometimes  impiired  of  tiie 
teacher,  after  a  visitor  had  gone,  whethei'  any  I'emai'ks  had 
l)een  made  I'egarding  the  excellent  a[)pearance  of  the  room. 

Pi'ogress  in  a'sthetic  a[)preciation  is  not  by  way  of  a 
gcuci-al  advance  in  discrimination  as  a  I'csult  of  tln'orcti- 
cal  statements,  but  by  delinite  study  of  individual  things 
which  art'  beautiful. 

Continued  use  of  water  color  should  de\-elop  ability  to 
match  colors  more  exactly,  to  disci'iminate  ami  I'ccord  some- 
^\■hat  subtle  distinctions  in  color  tones,  and  to  harmonize 
colors.  (  )ne  can  usually  secure  excelU'nt  color  hai-nioni(>s 
by  choosing  with  some  care  among  coloi-  pj'ints,  fabrics,  etc., 
and  iVom  nature,  'i'lie  grou[)S  of  coloi-s  occuri'ing  in  llowers, 
lichens,  faded  lea\'es.  etc.,  fui'uish  excellent  material,  liv 
matching  these  colors  the  children  can  secure  beautiful 
combinations    foi'   use    in    design. 

Together  w  ith  a  gi'ow  iiig  a<-(|naiiitance  with  good  exam- 
ples, simple  exj)ei-iments  in   harmonizing  gi\-en  colors  may 


128  FIXE  AND   IXDISTUIAL  ARTS 

be  tried,  by  iiitrodueing  a  common  element  into  each  of  a 
group  of  two  or  tlu'ee  colors  to  bring  tliem  into  closer  re- 
lation. For  example,  two  colors  like  red  and  blue,  \\liicli 
in  full  intensity  are  not  usually  pleasing,  can  be  made 
more  agreeable  in  conil)inalion  by  mixing  a  little  gray 
with  each.  ^Mixing  a  little  of  each  with  tlie  other  or  some 
of  a  third  color  with  each  produces  a  similar  result.  'I'he 
red  still  counts  as  red  and  the  bhu'  as  l)lue,  unless  too 
much  has  been  added  in  the  mixing,  but  the  common  ele- 
ment has  made  them  less  antagonistic,  ('hildren  should 
try  such  experiments  Avith  a  number  of  colors  and  choose 
for  use  in  their  designs  the  tones  N\here  the  proportion  of 
mixture  gives  the  l)est  effect. 

By  the  end  of  the  eighth  year  children  should  have  gained 
ability  to  use  drawing  as  a  common  means  of  expression, 
and  to  make  rapid  descriptive  sketches,  careful,  well- 
constructed  drawings,  or  truthful  records  of  ol)servations, 
as  occasion  may  reipiire.  They  should  l)e  able  to  undertake 
common  constructive  proljlems  with  knowledge  of  tools  and 
processes,  and  should  have  accpiircd  some  ability  to  convert 
raw  materials  into  a  fuiished  product  according  to  a  prede- 
termined plan.  Tliey  should  have  the  beginnings  of  good 
taste  in  choosing  what  is  excellent  among  things  relating 
to  the  home  and  community,  and  should  enjoy  l)eauty  of 
form  and  harmony  of  coloi'  in  nature  and  in  art.  They 
should  ha\'e  enough  acfpuiintance  with  what  artists  have 
produced  to  lead  them  to  find  some  favorites  among  objects 
of  fine  art,  as  they  have  among  ])0()ks.  so  that  tliey  will 
desire  to  })()ssess  re})roductions  of  t]iest\  and  they  should 
have  developefl  a  general  sympathetic  attitude  toward  art. 
I'hey  should  also  have  gained  an  interest  in  productive 
labor  sufHcient  to   inteipret  things   in   terms  of  the  effort 


(iUADKS  VII    AND  VI 11 


129 


and  skill  required  to  [)r()duce  them,  and  should  have  devel- 
oped a  healthful  enjoyment  in  the  exercise'  of  llieii' abilities 
wliieh  will  lead  them  to  he  dissatistied  w  ith  any  occupation 
which  does  not  add  to  the  well-being  of  the  conununity. 

Whether  the  aims  and  the  methods  considered  in  these 
pages  meet  with  general  aceeptaiu-e  or  in>t,  the  fact  remains 
that  the  formulation  of  some  fairly  deliidte  standard  of  at- 
tainment based  on  the  relati\e  value  of  the  differi'iit  acti\i- 
ties  involved  and  on  the  tested  ca[)acity  of  the  children, 
and  some  specific  progression  from  grade  to  grade  towai'd 
this  standard  are  lu-cessary  to  thi'  highest  effectiveness  of 
work  in  manual  arts  in  elementarv  schools. 


INDEX 


.I'.stlietic  appi'fciatinii.  ;-].  14,  15 

(if  ])rop(jrti(ins.  !»•").  '.Hi 

jiiourt'ss  in.  2").  104 

relation  to  (U'sii,Mi,  2()-2'.t.  120-124 
Ai^^rioultural  education,  117 

Blocks.  41.  42 

I'.ook  covers.  122-124 

Color,  study  of.  2'.i.  ?,0 

proizrcssioii   of.  through    grades, 
:;o.  :J1 
Grade  I.  44 

Grades  II  and  III.  oH-OO 
(iradi's  1\'  and  \'.  70.  77 
Grade  VI.  '.Mi 

(irades  \'I1  and  VIII.  127-128 
fonstructive   work,   awakened   in- 
terest in.  l-.'i 
jirogression  through  grades.  21-2.") 
(irade  I.  .•;'.t-41 
(irades  11  and  111.  .'):)-.m 
(irades  W  and  \'.  OH.  (i'.» 
(iradi'  \\.  h'.)-<.t2 
(irades  \l\  and  \'III.  IIO-11'.I 
i-elatiou  to  draw  iiiii.  7.  H 
value  of.  :;.  10.  11.  :;2 

Desii:!!.  awaki-ned  interest   in.  1 .  .'J 
edueatioiial  value.   1  1.  1 .") 
proLMT-.>ioii    through   i:rades,   ifS'. 
2'.t 
(iiadr  I.    l-_'-U 
(■rad<'s  11  and  III.  .'.O-.V.) 


Design,  jirogression  through  grades 
(irades  IX  and  V.  71-7-") 
tirade  \'I.  oy-OO 
Grades  VII  and  VIII.  ll<.t-127 
two  aspects  of.  2.V27.  71.  u:l.  ',»4 
Domestic  art.  '.»:],  118.  ]2«i 
Domestic  science.  (»o.  118.  110 
Drawing,  awakened  interest  in.  l-:> 
courses  in.  0 
geometric.  ">o.  50 
of  maps.  84 
mechanical.  7.  8.  25.  41.  54.  55. 

(i8-70.  08.  110.  117 
nature  of.  (i.  7.  0 
of  ohjects.  curvilinear.  107.  110 
of   objects,    rectilinear.    104-107. 

112.  11. J 
pictorial.  ;);!-;-}5,  ;-]'.l,  48-.5:).   102. 

lo.j.  no 

of  plants.  84-8(1.  102 
progression  through  grades.  18-20 

(irade  I.  :!.•!-.•]'.• 

(irades  II  and  III.  47-.5:; 

(irades  !\'  and  \'.  o:;-07 

(irade  \'l.  8;;-8'.l 

Grades  VII  and  \'1II.  '.t'.i-lIO 
\alues  and  aims  of.  a'sthetic.  '.• 

eilucational.  2.  :;.  5.  <;.  :]-2 

industrial.  7.  8 

seiiMitilic.  ;> 

llouseh.ild  art.  '.»:;.  1  lis.  liiO 
Industrial  e(lucation.  12.   I:!.  80-8;) 


1:^51 


132  FIXK  AND   IXDl'STPvIAL  AIMS 

Manual   training,  see  C'nnstructive  I'muressidn    nf    subjects    thrnu^ii 

work  yradfs,  drawint;-.  18 

Measuring.  41  Grades  I.  II. and  III.  10.;«-3'.i. 

Mechanical  drawing,  value  of.  7.  8  47-->o 

Grade  I,  41  Grades  IV  and  V.  111.  20.  («- 

Grades  II  and  III.  54.  uo  07 

Grades  IV  and  V,  08-70  Grades  VI.  VII.  and  VIII.  24. 

Grade  VI.  00  2-').  8:J-81t.  '.I'.KllU 

Grades  VII  and  VIII.  25.  (t8.  Proportions.    ai>i>i'eriation    of.    '.»5. 

116,  117  '.»0.  121.  122 

rei)resentation  of.  Oo-07 
Object  drawing,  104-107.  110.  112. 

113  Rapid  sketching.  8,  67,  iHi,  100 

Kepresentation.  .sec  Drawing 
Paper  cutting.  40 

Perspective.  8-10.  20.  104-106  Size  of  drawings.  87-80 

Pictures,  study  of.  15.  10.  110.  111.  Sketchbooks.  68.  101 

114.  115  Special  teachers.  P,U.  51.  00 

Progression    of    subjects    throuuh  Standards  of  attaimnent.  10 

grades.  17.  18  Grade  I.  45.  46 

color,  20  (trades  II  and  III.  00-01 

Grades  I.  II.  and  III.  30.  44.  (irades  IV  and  \'.  77.  78 

40.  58-00  Grade  VI.  07 

Grades  IV  and  V.  31.  02.  03  Grades  VII  and  VIII.  128.  120 
Grade  VI.  31.  70.  80 

Grades    VII     and     YIU.    31.  N'alues.  of  constructive  work.  3.  lo. 

08  11.32 

constructive  work.  21  of  design.  14.  15 

Grades  I.   II.   and    III.  21-24.  "f  drawing.  2.  3.  5-0.  23.  32 

30-41,  53-55  of  industrial  and  vocational  edu- 

Grades  IV  and  A'.  24.  08.  00  t'atioii.  12.  13.  80-s;! 

Grades  VI.  A'll.  and  \'III.  24.  A'ocational    eductttion,    we    Indus- 

25.  80-02.  116-110  trial  education 
design.  25 

Griulesl.  II.  andlll.  28.  42-44.  Water  cohir.  21.  60.  7().  XI.  Oti 

50-50  WeaviiiL;-.  0)0 

Grades  ]V  and  \'.  28.  71-75  Woodwork,  (irades  1  \'  and  \'.  70 

Grades  W.  VII.  and  VIII.  28.  Grade  VI.  0(l-'.)2 

110-127  Grades  Vll  and  ^']I1.  117-110 


ANNOUNCEMENTS 


BOOKS   FOR  TEACHERS 


Allen:   Civics  and  Health ^'-5 

Brigham  :  tjeographic  Influences  in  American  History  ....      1.25 
Channing  and  Hart:  Cluide  to  the  Study  of  American  History     .     2.00 

Hall:   Aspects  of  Child  Life  and  l-".ducation 1.50 

Harrington:    Live  Lssues  in  Classical  .Study 75 

Hodge:   Nature  Study  and  Life 1.50 

Johnson  :   Education  by  Plays  and  (lames 90 

Johnson:   What  to  do  at  Recess 25 

Jones:   Education  as  (irowth 1.25 

Kern:   .\mong  Country  Schools 1.25 

Mace:    Method  in  History i  .00 

>Ltc\'icar  :   Principles  of  Education 60 

Moral  Training  in  the  Public  Schools 1.25 

Prince:   Courses  of  Studies  and  Methods  of  Teaching 75 

Scott:   Social  ICducation 1.25 

Smith:   The  Teaching  of  Geometry 1.25 

Tompkins:   Philosophy  of  School  Management 75 

Tompkins:   Philosophy  of  Teaching 75 

Wiltse  :   Place  of  the  Story  in  Early  Education,  and  Other  Ivssays. 

A  ^LlnuaI  for  Teachers 50 

FOR    CLASS    RF.CORDS 

Comings:   Complete  Record — .\ttendance  and  .Scholarship 

(jraded- School  l-".dition 30 

High-.School  I->_lition 30 

Comings:   .Semiannual  Record  for  Craded  Schools 15 

(iinn  and  ( 'ompany  :   'J'eacher"s  Class  Hooks 

>^"-  I 30 

\o.  II 40 

'l'\vent\'  Weeks"  Class  liook ;o 


GINN   AND   COMPANY   Publishers 


COURSES  OF  STUDIES 
AND  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

A  HANDBOOK  FOR  TEACHERS 
By  JOHN  T.  PRINCE 


l2mo,   cloth,    344  pages,    75   cents 

THIS  is  a  brief  plan  of  studies  for  elementary  schools, 
and  a  simple  and  direct  statement  of  good  methods 
of  organization,  teaching,  and  discipline. 

Although  the  hints  and  suggestions  arc  directed  mainly 
to  untrained  and  inexperienced  teachers,  it  is  hoped  that 
they  may  commend  themselves  to  the  judgment  of  the 
best  teachers,  as  based  upon  correct  principles  of  teaching. 
The  following  outline  of  the  contents  indicates  the 
scope  of  the  book. 

I.   Courses  of  Study 

II.  Methods  of  Teaching 

Writing  Observation  Lessons 

Spelling  Information  Lessons 

Language  Drawing 

Grammar  Singing 

Arithmetic  Memory  Lessons 

Geography  Busy  Work 

History  Physical  Exercises 
Physiology  and  Hygiene 

III.  Organization,  Moral  Training,  and  Government 


GINN   &  COMPANY   Publishers 


ASPECTS  OF  CHILD   LIFE  AND 
EDUCATION 

By  G.  STANLEY     HALL,    President  of  Clark  University  and  Professor  of 
Psychology,  ^nd  Some  of  His  Pupils 


l2mo.      Cloth.      326  pages 


DURING  the  last  twenty  years  one  of  the  lines 
of  research  carried  on  by  President  G.  Stanley 
Hall  and  students  working  under  his  direction,  at 
Clark  University,  has  been  the  psychology  of  child- 
hood and  its  applications  to  education.  These 
researches  have  been  published  in  the  University 
periodicals,  which  are  of  necessity  expensive  and 
limited  in  circulation,  and  have  not,  therefore, 
hitherto  been  available  to  the  general  public.  The 
object  of  the  present  volume,  which  is  to  be  the 
first  of  a  series,  is  to  make  accessible  to  parents 
and  teachers,  in  somewhat  condensed  form  and 
at  moderate  price,  the  results  of  these  researches 
which  are  now  recognized  as  of  fundamental 
importance   in   all  educational   work. 

GINN   &  COMPANY   Publishers 


AN 
INTRODUCTORY   PSYCHOLOGY 

W'nh  Some  Educational  Applications 

By  .MKLiioiKNK  SrcART  Read.  Professor  of  l^sychology  and 
Education  in  C(jlgate   L'niversitv 

I  imo,  cloth,   309  pages,  illustrated,  5 1. 00 

THE  aim  of  the  book  is  to  present  to  the  reader  the  main 
truths  of  the  science  of  psychology  in  a  simple,  direct, 
and  interesting  fashion.  It  is  the  normal  dexelopment  and 
workings  of  the  reader's  own  mental  experience  which  the  book 
attempts  to  help  him  understand,  the  mind  being  conceiyed 
as  a  part  of  a  psychophysical  organism,  adjusting  itself  to  the 
conditions  of  its  life. 

The  main  topics  taken  up  are  the  foll(_)wing  :  'J"he  nature  and 
problems  of  ps\'chology  ;  the  general  nature  of  consciousness; 
the  nervous  system  :  the  simple  adaptive  ])rocesses.  —  impulse, 
instinct,  and  habit:  the  simple  and  the  complex  processes  of 
.sense  stimulation,  —  sensation  and  ])erce[)tion  ;  attention  and 
interest :  as.sociation  ;  the  simpler  and  the  more  complex  affec- 
tive processes,  —  affection,  feeling,  emotion,  and  sentiment; 
the  ideational  processes,  —  memory,  imagination,  conception, 
and  thought ;  and  the  processes  of  complex  conscious  adapta- 
tion, —  the  will. 

Considerable  space  has  been  given  to  ])ractical  applications, 
as  they  help  decidedly  in  making  clear  and  in  fixing  iii  mind 
the  principles  involved.  Applicatioiis  of  ])s_\-chology  are.  of 
course,  especially  useful  to  the  teacher,  and  the  learning  and 
teaching  processes  have  received   much   attention. 

As  its  title  indicates,  this  is  a  first  book  in  ])sychology.  It 
is  esi)ecially  designed  for  use  as  a  text  in  normal  schools,  teach- 
ers' training  classes  in  high  schools,  and  in  elementary  coiu'ses 
in  colleu'cs. 


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